History of the Earth

Thank you to Wondrium for sponsoring today's video! Signup for your FREE trial to Wondrium here: http://ow.ly/3bA050L1hTL -------------------------------------------- Researched and Written by Jon Farrow Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Laniakea animation by Alperaym Incredible thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza, the GOAT: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazza/?hl=en Huge thanks to Daniel Pomarède for the use of his images of Laniakea and our local cosmological neighborhood: https://twitter.com/danielpomarede Thank to Pablo Carlos Budassi for his wonderful images of the KBC Void, Shapley Supercluster and Bootes Void. Stock footage taken from Videoblocks and Artgrid, music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist and Silver Maple. Space imagery also used from NASA and ESO. Image Credits: Visualisations of the QCD Vacuum Derek D Leinweber CSSM University of Adelaide Observable Universe by Andrew Z Colvin KBC Void, Shapley Supercluster and Bootes Void by Pablo Carlos Budassi, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons UK from space European Space Agency, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/deed.en, via Wikimedia Commons KBC Void, Shapley Supercluster and Bootes Void by Pablo Carlos Budassi, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons Galactic Filament by Andrew Pontzen and Fabio Governato, CC BY 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons SDSS Plates by EdPost, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons Jim Peebles Juan Diego Soler, CC BY 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons Zeldovich By A. T. Service - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15963198 Martin Rees By Festival della Scienza, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18609295 Richard Gott By A. T. Service - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15490353 George Smoot By Nomo michael hoefner http://www.zwo5.de - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7131137 John C Mather By Christopher Michel - John Mather, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39209520 LHC By Maximilien Brice, CERN - CERN Document Server, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29068932 00:00 Introduction 05:41 Mapping The Cosmos 16:40 Meatball Honeycomb Sponge (Structure of the Universe) 21:55 Cosmic Seeds (Origin of Structure) 39:36 Problems With Copernicus #cosmicweb

Thank you to Wondrium for sponsoring today's video! Signup for your FREE trial to Wondrium here: http://ow.ly/aJUh50LnlQP -------------------------------- If you like this video, check out writer Geraint Lewis´ excellent book, co-written with Chris Ferrie: Where Did the Universe Come From? And Other Cosmic Questions: Our Universe, from the Quantum to the Cosmos https://www.amazon.com/Where-Universe-Other-Cosmic-Questions/dp/1728238811 AND check out his Youtube channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/AlasLewisAndBarnes Incredible thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza, the GOAT: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazza/?hl=en Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Art created by soso112429 Music from Silver Maple, Epidemic Sound and Artlist. Stock footage from Videoblocks and Artgrid, images of galaxies from NASA and ESO/Hubble. Image Credits: Tsung Dao Lee (left) and Chen Ning Yang at a blackboard in an Institute office from the Shelby White and Leon Levy Archives Center. Cobalt 60 By V1adis1av - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=95281927 00:00 Introduction 04:21 Symmetry is Everywhere 10:46 The Hidden Rules Of The Universe 22:36 How To Break The Universe 34:52 Why Did The Universe Freeze?

Go to our sponsor https://betterhelp.com/HOTU for 10% off your first month of therapy with BetterHelp and get matched with a therapist who will listen and help. ------------------------------------------- Researched and Written by Leila Battison Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazza/?hl=en Art by Joseph Ioseliani Sound Editing by Jack White If you like our videos, check out Leila's Youtube channel: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCXIk7euOGq6jkptjTzEz5kQ Music from Epidemic Sound and Artlist Stock footage from Videoblocks and Artgrid Galaxies, space videos from NASA and ESO Image Credits: UY Scuti By ESO/Digitized Sky Survey 2 - DSS2: http://aladin.u-strasbg.fr/AladinLite/?target=V*%20UY%20Sct&fov=0.033334&survey=P%2fDSS2%2fcolor, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=94999471 Peter Higgs By Bengt Nyman - Flickr: IMG_7516, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30047380 Particle collision By Brookhaven National Laboratory - https://www.flickr.com/photos/11304375@N07/6799740261/, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=44840903 Cloud Chamber by Stephen Curry, CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons REFERENCES: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-first-molecule-in-the-universe/ https://www.mpg.de/13392365/first-astrophysical-detection-of-helium-hydride-ion https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/big-bang-molecule-1.5101734 https://www.sci.news/astronomy/amino-acid-formation-interstellar-medium-09056.html https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Coordinate_(Dative_Covalent)_Bonding https://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BBhistory.html https://www.britannica.com/science/electroweak-theory http://sciexplorer.blogspot.com/2011/01/our-universe-part-7-quark-epoch.html https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/space/astrophysics-3-recent-discoveries-that-illuminate-our-vision-of-the-universe/higgs-boson-we-have-discovered-the-origin-of-matter-in-the-universe/ https://science.nasa.gov/ems/02_anatomy https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/13/us-scientists-confirm-major-breakthrough-in-nuclear-fusion https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy https://www.space.com/james-webb-space-telescope-science-denial https://www.sciencenews.org/article/proton-mass-quarks-calculation https://astro.ucla.edu/~wright/Lyman-alpha-forest.html https://www.quantamagazine.org/big-bounce-simulations-challenge-the-big-bang-20200804/ https://www.astro.umd.edu/~miller/nstar.html https://hps.org/publicinformation/ate/faqs/faqradbods.html https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/what-holds-together-the-protons-and-neutrons-in-an-atoms-nucleus/ https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/degrees-of-freedom/alan-guth-interview/ https://gizmodo.com/if-you-fold-a-paper-in-half-103-times-it-will-be-as-thi-1607632639 https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/universe-symmetric/ https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-03-31-nature-prefers-symmetry-and-simplicity https://www-project.slac.stanford.edu/e158/parityviolation.html https://www.britannica.com/science/physical-constant https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/pt.5.031277/full/ https://depts.washington.edu/imreslab/education/Physics%20of%20PET.pdf https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2019/02/08/theres-almost-no-antimatter-in-the-universe-and-no-one-knows-why/?sh=1cc06d5c9c6b http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Astro/sn87a.html https://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211 https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/152/1/75/2604549?login=false https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/13/us-scientists-confirm-major-breakthrough-in-nuclear-fusion https://www.physics.unlv.edu/~jeffery/astro/cosmol/big_bang_nucleosynthesis.html https://www.aps.org/programs/honors/history/historicsites/penziaswilson.cfm https://darkcosmos.com/home/f/baryon-acoustic-oscillations-bao https://arxiv.org/pdf/1703.00013.pdf 00:00 Introduction 05:44 1. The Planck Era: First Ten-Tredecillionth Of A Second 18:51 2. Grand Unification: First Undecillionth of A Second 26:56 3. Inflation: First Picosecond 41:43 4. The Higgs and Mass: First Billionth of a Second 56:06 5. Fine Tuning, Protons, Neutrons and Antimatter: First Millionth of a Second 1:13:23 6. Neutrinos and Primordial Black Holes: First Second 1:31:59 7. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: First Minute 1:44:12 8. The First Molecule: First 100,000 Years 1:54:59 9. First Atoms, First Light: First 380,000 Years 2:10:23 10: Dark Matter and Dark Energy: First Million Years

Offset your carbon footprint on Wren: https://www.wren.co/start/historyoftheuniverse The first 100 people who sign up will have 10 extra trees planted in their name. This video has been sponsored by Wren. ------------------------------------------- Researched and Written by Colin Stuart Check out his superb Astrophysics for Beginners course here: https://www.colinstuart.net/astrophysics-course-for-beginners-introduction-online/ Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Animations by Manuel Rubio Incredible thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza, the GOAT: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazza/?hl=en Proton visualization courtesy of MIT, Jefferson Labs, and Sputnik Animation, Copyright © MIT and Jefferson Lab, 2021, All Rights Reserved Stock footage taken from Videoblocks and Artgrid, music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist and Silver Maple. Space imagery also used from NASA and ESO. Image Credits: Heavy Ion Collider By Z22 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=61544972 Dark Energy Survey By Dark Energy Survey/DOE/FNAL/DECam/CTIO/NOIRLab/NSF/AURAAcknowledgments: T.A. Rector (University of Alaska Anchorage/NSF’s NOIRLab), M. Zamani (NSF’s NOIRLab) & D. de Martin (NSF’s NOIRLab) - https://noirlab.edu/public/images/noirlab2118a/, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=106681491 00:00 Introduction 05:06 The First Light In The Universe 12:17 The Weirdest Object In The Universe 25:59 Seeing The Big Bang 35:55 Why Atoms? #recombination #quantum

Head over to https://bit.ly/3AvGyDT to get 100 blades FREE with your first razor from Henson, using the code 'universe'. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Researched and Written by JD Voyek Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Thumbnail Art by Ettore Mazza LMC by By ESO, A McLeod et al. - https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1903a/, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=76422254 Rutherford Research Lab By Science Museum London / Science and Society Picture Library - Sir Ernest Rutherfords laboratory, early 20th century. Uploaded by Mrjohncummings, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28024311 Cloud Chamber by Michael F. Schönitzer, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons Microcapsule Livermore National Laboratory, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons Chamber Lawrence Livermore National Security, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons ITER By Oak Ridge National Laboratory - ITER Tokamak and Plant Systems (2016), CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=74249991 By Oak Ridge National Laboratory - ITER 3D plasma equilibrium with ripple contours, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=90681113 Methusaleh By ESA/Hubble, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25275489 Metal poor dwarf galaxy NASA/ESA/Meredith Durbin/Judy Schmidt By ESO/Digitized Sky Survey 2, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9548125 Judy Schmidt: LDN 1641N Star Cluster REFERENCES: http://solar-center.stanford.edu/folklore/Solar-Folklore.pdf https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.95.1.13 https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57515422 https://home.cern/science/physics/early-universe https://people.ast.cam.ac.uk/~pettini/Intro%20Cosmology/Lecture08.pdf https://www.jstor.org/stable/227051?seq=1 https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsnr.1951.0007 https://history.aip.org/exhibits/rutherford/sections/young-rutherford.html https://www.rutherford.org.nz/msquotes.htm https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/blackett-lecture.pdf https://www.newenergytimes.com/v2/sr/Rutherford-Blackett/Screenshots/ROYAL-SOCIETY-Letter-to-Editor.pdf https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co5540/photograph-showing-an-atomic-transmutation-produced-by-an-alpha-x-ray-black-and-white-print-photograph-diagram https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1948/ceremony-speech/ https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsdeuterium-tritium-fusion-reactor-fuel https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa899d https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/727/1/57 https://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/page/low_mass_stars_brown_dwarfs http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/NucEne/fusion.html https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-fusion-power.aspx https://lasers.llnl.gov/news/high-quality-diamond-capsule-enhanced-nifs-record-energy-shot https://lasers.llnl.gov/news/hybrid-experiments-drive-nif-toward-ignition https://lasers.llnl.gov/about/how-nif-works/target-chamber https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02338-4 https://lasers.llnl.gov/about/how-nif-works#targets https://www.aps.org/newsroom/vpr/dpp/2020/11-09-2020-01.cfm https://www.britannica.com/science/nuclear-fusion https://www.britannica.com/science/nuclear-fusion/Fusion-reactions-in-stars https://www.llnl.gov/news/national-ignition-facility-experiment-puts-researchers-threshold-fusion-ignition https://cen.acs.org/energy/nuclear-power/Fusion-experiments-broke-records-year/99/i44 https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/leag/DecadalHelium3.pdf https://physics.unc.edu/the-cosmological-lithium-problem/ https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empedocles/ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Empedocles https://brill.com/view/journals/rip/44/2/article-p170_2.xml https://www.uwa.edu.au/science/-/media/Faculties/Science/Docs/Timeline-of-the-Universe.pdf https://people.ast.cam.ac.uk/~pettini/Intro%20Cosmology/Lecture08.pdf http://www.astro.uvic.ca/~jwillis/teaching/astr405/astr405_lecture4.pdf https://arxiv.org/abs/1302.3180 https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/science/hd140283.html https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2013.12196 https://www.space.com/how-can-a-star-be-older-than-the-universe.html https://arxiv.org/abs/2105.11311 https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-nucl-102010-130445 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/665/1/012001/pdf https://astrobites.org/2012/07/05/lessons-from-lithium/ https://astrobites.org/2015/07/27/shifting-the-pillars-constraining-lithium-production-in-big-bang-nucleosynthesis/ #bigbangnucleosynthesis 00:00 Introduction 06:01 Alchemy 12:53 Fusion 22:40 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis 36:19 The Cosmological Lithium Problem

Start speaking a new language in 3 weeks with Babbel 🎉. Get up to 65% OFF your subscription ➡️ HERE: https://go.babbel.com/t?bsc=1200m65-youtube-historyoftheuniverse-july-2022&btp=default&utm_term=generic_v1&utm_medium=paidsocial&utm_source=YouTube&utm_content=Influencer..History%20of%20the%20Universe..USA..YouTube ---------------------------------------------------- Written by Joseph Conlon Professor of Theoretical Physics, University of Oxford Author, Why String Theory? https://www.amazon.com/Why-String-Theory-Joseph-Conlon/dp/1482242478 Edited and Narrated by David Kelly Thumbnail Art by Ettore Mazza Huge thanks to Oliver Knill for the use of his Calabi-Yau imagery, and Jeff Bryant for his. Footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid. Footage of galaxies from NASA Goddard. Image Credits: Democritus By Didier Descouens - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81966238 Aspen Centre for Physics By Éamonn Ó Muirí - Flickr: The Aspen Center for Physics, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23516453 Silesia By derivative work: Dunmerr (talk) - Wroclaw_1.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4328944 String theory SriVrushank(1840372), CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons String theory t duality calculations Andrius.v, CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons Mobius Strip By 09glasgow09 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7342809 By Alex P. Kok - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=93778671 Klein bottle By Tttrung - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=960446 Roman surface By en:user:A13ean - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Keyi., CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5535064 Calabi Yau Manifold By The original uploader was Lunch at English Wikipedia. - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Lunch. This diagram was created with Mathematica., CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3466278 Quintic By The original uploader was Floriang at German Wikipedia. - Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons by Trockennasenaffe using CommonsHelper. This diagram was created with Mathematica., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12895895 Plant cells By Des_Callaghan - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35894254 00:00 Introduction 04:15 The Fifth Dimension 10:03 A Theory of Strings 16:30 Visualizing The Invisible (Calabi-yau Manifolds) 22:31 Where Are The Hidden Dimensions? 33:01 Hunting For Evidence At The Beginning Of Time #stringtheory

Start building your ideal daily routine ! The first 500 people who click on the link will get 25% OFF Fabulous Premium ➡️ https://thefab.co/historyoftheuniverse ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Researched and Written by Leila Battison Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Incredible thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza, the GOAT: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazza/?hl=en If you like our videos, check out Leila's Youtube channel: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCXIk7euOGq6jkptjTzEz5kQ REFERENCES: https://web.archive.org/web/20050511104943/http://www.mdtap.org/TT/1999.05/1-art.html https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/399/kuiper-belt-in-depth/ https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4172 https://time.com/5199001/stephen-hawking-als/ https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/news/2019/4/19/how-scientists-captured-the-first-image-of-a-black-hole/ https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-happens-if-you-fall-black-hole https://www.space.com/testable-primordial-black-holes-theory https://astronomy.com/news/2019/07/primordial-black-holes https://arxiv.org/pdf/1810.12224.pdf https://www.britannica.com/biography/Stephen-Hawking https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine/how-did-supermassive-black-holes-grow-so-fast https://www.space.com/testable-primordial-black-holes-theory https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1971MNRAS.152...75H https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ac332d/meta https://www.space.com/earliest-supermassive-black-hole-storm-discovered https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/black-holes https://astronomy.com/magazine/2019/08/a-brief-history-of-black-holes https://news.wisc.edu/what-is-a-blazar/ https://arxiv.org/pdf/1909.11090.pdf https://arxiv.org/abs/1711.10458 https://arxiv.org/abs/2006.11172 https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZLMWpujVUcC&redir_esc=y https://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/ryden.1/ast162_7/notes31.html https://lweb.cfa.harvard.edu/seuforum/bh_whatare.htm https://scitechdaily.com/meet-sagittarius-a-astronomers-reveal-first-image-of-the-black-hole-at-the-heart-of-the-milky-way/ Huge thanks to the IllustrisTNG collaboration for footage of their simulation. Thanks to NASA and ESO for space footage. Stock footage from Videoblocks and Artgrid. Soundtrack from Silver Maple, Artlist and Epidemic Sound. Image Credits: Cygnus By T.A. Rector (University of Alaska Anchorage) and H. Schweiker (WIYN and NOIRLab/NSF/AURA) - https://noirlab.edu/public/images/noao-cyg_x1/, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=106094689 Keiper Belt NASA/GSFC/Marc Kuchner and Christopher Stark La Silla By ESO/José Francisco Salgado - http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1319a/, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26059347 Sedna Orbit By Tomruen - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=60453344 Planet 9 nagualdesign; Tom Ruen, background taken from File:ESO - Milky Way.jpg, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons Milky way halo By ESO/L. Calçada - http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1217a/, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26366780 Virgo Cluster By Pablo Carlos Budassi - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=94421982 M87 Galaxy By Chris Mihos (Case Western Reserve University)/ESO - http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1525a/, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=41184851 GURT By Serge Yerin (YeS) - Own work, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=84488536 Large Milimeter Telescope By panza.rayada, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=53438718 Very Large Array By CGP Grey - 2009-08-24T14-15-41 -- DSC_0013 4892860281, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37019504 Event Horizon Telescopes By The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration - (2019). "First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole". The Astrophysical Journal 875 (1). DOI:10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7. ISSN 20418213. Figure 1, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=77916273 Event Horizon Infographic By ALMA, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=106758965 ton 618 By Sloan Digital Sky Survey, Apache Point Observatory, Astrophysical Research Consortium - http://aladin.u-strasbg.fr/AladinLite/?target=Ton%20%20618&fov=0.033334&survey=P%2fSDSS9%2fcolor, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=97489739 Black Hole Eats Star Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/Chris Smith (USRA/GESTAR) Universe Simulation NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and the Advanced Visualization Laboratory at the National Center for Supercomputing 00:00 Introduction 06:14 The First Black Hole 15:13 Supermassive 26:11 Before Atoms 34:22 Finding The Needle

Use code HISTORY16 for up to 16 FREE MEALS + 3 Surprise Gifts across 7 HelloFresh boxes plus free shipping at https://bit.ly/3Rkknac ! --------------------------------------------------------------------- If you like this video, check out writer Geraint Lewis´ excellent book, co-written with Chris Ferrie: Where Did the Universe Come From? And Other Cosmic Questions: Our Universe, from the Quantum to the Cosmos https://www.amazon.com/Where-Universe-Other-Cosmic-Questions/dp/1728238811 AND check out his Youtube channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/AlasLewisAndBarnes Incredible thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza, the GOAT: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazza/?hl=en Art created by soso112429, and Joe from History Dose: www.youtube.com/historydose Thanks to Alexander Long for speculative fiction suggestions. Music from Silver Maple, Epidemic Sound and Artlist. Stock footage from Videoblocks and Artgrid, images of galaxies from NASA and ESO/Hubble. Image Credits: Steam engine Tfme, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons Caesium Clock By Binarysequence - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24592511 Arecibo By Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz) - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81583884 World line By Cyp - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=283995 Roger Penrose By Cirone-Musi, Festival della Scienza, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19318743 Wormhole By MikeRun - Own work, using Wurmloch (Wormhole) by MrFreakmanis (CC BY-SA 3.0) (https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:190022), CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=100253460 Dirac Plaque By Nightryder84 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15872966 Spacetime Cone By SVG version: K. Aainsqatsi at en.wikipedia Original PNG version: Stib at en.wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. (Original text: self-made), CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2210907 00:00 Introduction 04:59 What Is Space? 14:45 What Is Time? 25:26 New Space 44:16 New Time 1:00:09 Quantum Spacetime

2,403,111 views Jun 23, 2023 Go to our sponsor https://betterhelp.com/HOTU for 10% off your first month of therapy with BetterHelp and get matched with a therapist who will listen and help. ----------------------------- Written by Emma Chapman Check out her great book on this subject here: https://www.amazon.com/First-Light-Sw... Narrated by David Kelly Edited by Manuel Rubio and David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson Boötes Void model by Miguel Aragon and Mark Neyrinck https://www.shapeways.com/product/B5F... CGI of Boötes by Moritz Brand Galaxies, space videos from NASA and ESO, and IllustrisTNG: https://www.tng-project.org/ Images of the EDGES telescope from MIT Haystack: https://www.haystack.mit.edu/ Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist and Silver Maple Stock footage from Videoblocks and Artgrid 00:00 Introduction 04:46 The Edge Of Darkness 17:52 The Hidden Universe 29:41 Let There Be Light 40:57 The Signal

Go to our sponsor https://betterhelp.com/HOTU for 10% off your first month of therapy with BetterHelp and get matched with a therapist who will listen and help. ------------------------ Written by ‪@PaulMSutter‬ Check out his fantastic YouTube channel and podcast for more: https://www.pmsutter.com/shows/askasp... And his books which inspired this video: https://www.pmsutter.com/books Narrated by David Kelly Edited by Manuel Rubio and David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson Huge thanks to Bone Clones for footage of their fantastic skulls: https://boneclones.com/ (look out for much more of them at the end of the year...) Galaxies, space videos from NASA, ESO, and ESA. Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist and Silver Maple. Stock footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock. 00:00 Introduction 05:23 What Is Life? 18:44 How To Make Life 31:30 The Earliest Possible Life 43:44 Where Is Everybody? #aliens

Use code HOTU50 to get 50% off your first Factor box at https://bit.ly/46fjW7Z! -------------------- If you like this video, check out writer Geraint Lewis´ excellent book, co-written with Chris Ferrie: Where Did the Universe Come From? And Other Cosmic Questions: Our Universe, from the Quantum to the Cosmos https://www.amazon.com/Where-Universe... AND check out his YouTube channel: / alaslewisandbarnes Incredible thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza, the GOAT: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Extra editing by Manuel Rubio Music from Silver Maple, Epidemic Sound and Artlist. Stock footage from Storyblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock, images of galaxies from NASA and ESO/Hubble. 00:00 Introduction 05:45 Eyes to the Heavens 12:38 The First Galaxies 26:06 The Galactic Zoo 40:34 The James Webb Mystery

#time Get a great Displate deal at https://www.displate.com/hotu or my discount code HOTU for 1-2 = 22% OFF/3+ 33% OFF, available for a limited period of time, excl. Limited Editions and Lumino. Discount applied automatically when using link. ----------------------- Written by Colin Stuart Check out his fantastic astronomy newsletter here: https://colinstuart.substack.com Edited and Animated by the legendary Manuel Rubio - subscribe at ‪@ArtandContext‬ Narrated by David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson Whale Art by Joseph Ioseliani Galaxies, space videos from NASA, ESA and ESO. Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist, Silver Maple And Yehezkel Raz. Stock footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock. 00:00 Introduction 04:54 How Soon Is Now? 18:08 Where Is Now? 31:16 When Is Now? 43:25 The Illusion of Now

Check out the Opera browser here: https://opr.as/Opera-browser-History-... ----------------------- Written by ‪@PaulMSutter‬ Check out his fantastic YouTube channel and podcast for more: https://www.pmsutter.com/shows/askasp... And his books which inspired this video: https://www.pmsutter.com/books Huge thanks to Daniel Pomarède for the use of his visualizations of our local cosmological neighborhood, voids, and Laniakea: / danielpomarede Narrated by David Kelly Edited by ‪@ArtandContext‬ (Manuel Rubio) and David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson 3D Visualizations by Xinyu Gao Big thanks to Dr Miguel Aragon and Dr Mark Neyrink for their model of Bootes Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Laniakea animation by Alperaym Galaxies, space videos from NASA, ESO, and ESA and The IllustrisTNG Project: https://www.tng-project.org/ Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist, Silver Maple and Yehezkel Raz. Stock footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock. 00:00 Introduction 04:50 Mapping The Universe 13:34 Into The Great Unknown 26:34 Supervoids 44:46 Eating The Universe

If you’re struggling, consider therapy with our sponsor BetterHelp. Click https://betterhelp.com/HOTU for a 10% discount on your first month of therapy with a licensed professional specific to your needs. --------------------------------- Written by ‪@PaulMSutter‬ Check out his fantastic YouTube channel and podcast for more: https://www.pmsutter.com/shows/askasp... And his books which inspired this video: https://www.pmsutter.com/books Narrated by David Kelly Edited by ‪@ArtandContext‬ (Maniel Rubio) and David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson Galaxies, space videos from NASA, ESO, and ESA. Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist and Silver Maple. Stock footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock. 00:00 Introduction 04:00 The Impossible Lights 15:59 Our Quasar 26:41 The Infernal Engine 45:54 The Quasar Mystery #quasars

If you’re struggling, consider therapy with our sponsor BetterHelp. Click https://betterhelp.com/HOTU for a 10% discount on your first month of therapy with a licensed professional specific to your needs. ---------------------------------- Written by Colin Stuart Check out his fantastic astronomy newsletter here: https://colinstuart.substack.com Edited and Animated by the legend Manuel Rubio - ‪@ArtandContext‬ Narrated by David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson Further Art by Joseph Ioseliani Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv and Rami Dahouk (Using Manim - MITLicense, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC) Huge thanks to Prof. Derek Leinweber for his visualisations at http://www.physics.adelaide.edu.au/th... Galaxies, space videos from NASA, ESA and ESO. Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist, Silver Maple And Yehezkel Raz. Stock footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock. Further Image Sources: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi... https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi... https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi... https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ha... https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi... https://www.researchgate.net/profile/... https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/phy... https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/phy... https://polarjournal.ch/en/2022/06/30... 00:00 Introduction 04:31 Rise Of The Field 16:28 The Quantum Atom 30:35 Quantum Electrodynamics 45:21 Quantum Flavordynamics 57:46 Quantum Chromodynamics 1:11:37 Quantum Gravity

Enjoy 10% discount and free shipping on all Hoverpens with code HOTU: North America & other countries: https://bit.ly/HOTU_novium UK & Europe: https://bit.ly/HOTU_noviumeu -------------------------------- Written by Antonio Padilla Check out his fantastic book here: https://www.amazon.com/Fantastic-Numb... Huge thanks to Prof. Derek Leinweber for his visualisations at http://www.physics.adelaide.edu.au/th... Narrated by David Kelly Edited by Manuel Rubio and David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson Animations by the superb Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Galaxies, space videos from NASA, ESA and ESO. Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist, Silver Maple And Yehezkel Raz. Stock footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock. Extra images from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi... https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/28722/bk00... https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi... https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vi... 00:00 Introduction 05:38 What Is Energy? 12:46 How Much Does The Universe Weigh? 25:24 The Nullpunktsenergie 45:06 The Cosmological Constant Problem

Go to https://ground.news/HOTU to stay fully informed on what's happening in and out of our solar system. Subscribe through my link for 40% off unlimited access. -------------------------- Written by @‪@PaulMSutter‬ Check out his fantastic YouTube channel and podcast for more: https://www.pmsutter.com/shows/askasp... And his books which inspired this video: https://www.pmsutter.com/books Narrated by David Kelly Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz... Sound Editing by Craig Stevenson Big Bang Animations by Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv using Manim - MIT License, (c) 2020-2023 3Blue1Brown LLC Other animations by Manuel Rubio Other animations by A. Heikal Galaxies, space videos from NASA, ESO, and ESA Music from Epidemic Sound, Artlist, Silver Maple and Yehezkel Raz Stock footage from Videoblocks, Artgrid and Shutterstock 00:00 Introduction 05:07 Before The Big Bang 21:12 The Never-Ending Bang 35:06 The Landscape Before Time 49:35 Before The Before The Before...

Researched and Written by Leila Battison Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Script Edited by Pete Kelly Art by Khail Kupsky Thumbnail Art by Ettore Mazza If you like our videos, check out Leila's youtube channel: / @somethingincredible References for the video: https://archive.org/details/molecular... Thanks to: Own work from Image:MUexperiment.png. Author YassineMrabet Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436GYassineMrabetTalk NASA Music from Epidemic Sound

Written & researched by Leila Battison. Check out her channel:- / @somethingincredible Edited by Pete Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @petekellyhistory Narrated by David Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @voicesofthepast Art by Khail Kupsky Thumbnail art by Ettore Manza References:- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti... https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200... https://science.sciencemag.org/conten... https://link.springer.com/article/10.... https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200... https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/20... https://link.springer.com/referencewo... https://geogallery.si.edu/10026559/ac... https://www.britannica.com/place/Nort... http://www.travelinggeologist.com/201... https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/mo... https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf... https://www.britannica.com/science/Ha... https://forces.si.edu/atmosphere/02_0... https://scijinks.gov/atmosphere-forma... https://volcano.si.edu/learn_gallerie... https://csmgeo.csm.jmu.edu/geollab/Fi... Extra thanks to:- Giuseppe Donatiello Slim Sepp H. Martin, Blaise Pascal University Pedroalexandrade Tim Bertelink http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imageg... NASA/Colorado School of Mines/MIT/JPL/GSFC - http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/fil... NASA / JPL / Doug Ellison NASA https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140805.html

Written by William Painter Edited and Narrated by David Kelly Script edited by Pete Kelly Art by Khail Kupsky Thumbnail art by Ettore Manza Note 1: Fractionation. While some chemicals will remain gaseous (e.g.H​ and He) the rest will collect at the distance from the Sun with a temperature roughly equal to their temperature of deposition (the temperature a gas freezes into a solid). Jupiter, Saturn, and the other gas giants have cores of frozen volatiles ejected from the inner disk; each planet’s core has a unique chemical blend related to the distance and temperature at which it formed. Since the nebula was originally close to 100% gas, the same fractionation of chemicals also affected the inner disk. Note 2: Mars' Survival. Mars survives because of its orbit at the inner edge of this depopulated zone. The embryos that form closer to Jupiter are caught up in its orbital resonances--whole number ratios between two bodies orbiting the same star. These resonances deform the orbits of the embryos until they meet with some catastrophe. It is also possible that Mars emigrated to its position in the depopulated zone after forming nearer to the Sun and experiencing a close encounter with another embryo, possibly Earth. Note 3: Grand Tack Theory. This is called the Grand Tack theory, and it is an explanation for several otherwise unexplained conditions of the inner solar system. However there is significant disagreement over the early evolution of the gas giants. There are three primary complaints leveled against the Grand Tack Theory. 1) The migration of Jupiter would significantly accentuate the eccentricities of the orbits of the rocky planets in a fashion not seen. However if the nebular gas was still present, even partially, the friction would return their orbits back to low eccentricities. 2) The asteroid belt should have been depopulated after two passes by Jupiter. However it could have been reformed by material launched inward by continuing migration in the outer disk. 3) The Grand Tack theory requires a 2:3 resonant orbital ratio between Jupiter and Saturn to reverse their inward migration. This would require the planets by-passing the 1:2 resonant orbital ratio and there is significant skepticism of this occurring. We have included the Grand Tack theory because of its ability to explain the character of the inner disk and because it is representative of the fate befallen the inner disks of other systems. Note 4: Formation of Mercury. This is the most popular and most studied theory of Mercury’s formation. Despite this many questions remain about the capacity of a collision to strip away Mercury’s mantle. Other theories include Mercury losing its mantle via a series of hit-and-run collisions and then shifting orbits before reabsorbing the debris, its mantle eroding away via asteroid impacts, and its calm formation from an iron-rich innermost fraction of the solar nebula. Note 5: Solidifying Earth. The dynamics of the solidifying Earth are extremely complex and unconstrained. It is uncertain whether the Earth developed a solid veneer, how deep the magma oceans stretched or even if they were a global occurrence. Much of this uncertainty lies in the amount of energy available to sustain the magma oceans. Note 6: Theories surrounding Theia. There are three competing theories about Theia and its impact with Earth that attempt to explain discrepancies:In the first Theia is a Mars sized proto-planet that has been nurtured in Earth’s gravitational shadow. Thus it obtains a nearly identical chemical composition and survives long into the planetary melee. Ultimately Theia thuds into Earth at an angle, spinning the Earth like a top. Theia’s outer layers spray into the disk but its core subsides into the liquified Earth.Theia is massive in the second scenario, equal in size to the proto-Earth but distinct in composition. One or both the proto-planets are already spinning rapidly. They slump into each other, the prodigious energy from their collision allows thier matter to meld thoroughly. The rapidly spinning system swirls clouds of vaporized mantle into the lunar disk while the two protected cores churn and mingle. After the Moon has formed, the excess angular momentum is drained away by the Sun over eons. In the third scenario a small, blistering fast Theia plows through the Earth but is not captured. Theia fragments but its velocity carries much of the shrapnel out of the coagulating lunar disk, which is instead composed mostly of Earth material. Debates continue between these scenarios and their variations. Extra thanks to: Paul Balfe European SouthernObservatory Artist’s impression of Corot-7b (NASA/JPL-Caltech) PaulStewart FollowJupiter http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/A... JarvisArtist's rendering of six planets orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-11. Image credit: NASA/Tim Pyle Kamu Malı, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index...

Written & Researched by Leila Battison. Check out her channel:- / @somethingincredible Script & video edited & by Pete Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @petekellyhistory Narrated by David Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @voicesofthepast Thumbnail Art by Ettore Mazza Artwork by Khail Kupsky References for this video:- https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/sc... https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/deep-... https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1228/... https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/... https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/lette... https://www.nature.com/articles/nmicr... https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/... https://phys.org/news/2018-12-luca-un... https://sci-hub.tw/10.1038/scientific... https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti... http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179... https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2025 Image credits:-:- Charles_Darwin_seated.jpg: Henry Maull (1829–1914) and John Fox (1832–1907) (Maull & Fox) [3]derivative work: Beao / Public domain https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi... https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi... https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explor... http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/cgi-b... A. D. Rogers et al. - A. D. Rogers et al. in PLoS Biology NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program, Galapagos Rift Expedition 2011 - Flickr NOAA Photo Library Andrew Thurber, Oregon State University - Oregon State University Flickr account: https://www.flickr.com/photos/oregons... Janderk - transfered from en.wikipedia.org. Maulucioni y Doridí / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/...) Scott Fay / CC BY (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/...)

Written & Researched by Leila Battison. Check out her channel:- / @somethingincredible Script & video edited & by Pete Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @petekellyhistory Narrated by David Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @voicesofthepast Thumbnail Art by Ettore Mazza Artwork by Eduardo Valdez References:- https://lowell.edu/history/ https://lowell.edu/wp-content/uploads... https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/ma... https://www.nasa.gov/content/blue-mar... https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary... https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/wa... https://royalsocietypublishing.org/do... https://royalsocietypublishing.org/do... https://royalsocietypublishing.org/do... https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti... https://web.archive.org/web/201110090... https://www.space.com/17048-water-on-... Image sources:- Iván Éder / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/b...) By Percival Lowell - Яков Перельман - "Далёкие миры". СПб, типография Сойкина (English transliteration: Yakov Perelman - "Distant Worlds". St. Petersburg, Soykin printing house), 1914., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By Mariner 4 - NASA, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By Unknown author - Reconstructed from several online sources by Joe Haythornthwaite, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By John Evans and Howard Periman, USGS - http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyc..., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center By ESA - European Space Agency & Max-Planck Institute for Solar System Research for OSIRIS Team ESA/MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/RSSD/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA - http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Imag..., CC BY-SA 3.0-igo, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By European Southern Observatory / M. Kornmesser - https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso..., CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By Iván Éder - http://www.astroeder.com/digital/C17P..., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner... By Frank E. Schoonover (illustration) - Here, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By Henrique Alvim Corrêa - drzeus.best.vhw.net, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index...

Researched and Written by William Painter Revised by Pete & David Kelly Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Art Provided by Khail Kupsky Thumbnail by Ettore Mazza [1] A collection of radioactive chronometers were employed to reach this date. Most notably these include pairings of U-Pb, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Ar40-Ar39, each of these including a parent atom and a decay product. [2] Jupiter’s gargantuan mass can inflict chaos on the orbits of smaller bodies over millions and billions of rotations. The danger becomes acute if the orbit of the junior body reflects a ratio of Jupiter’s orbit (for example if the body orbits twice for every single orbit of Jupiter.) In this case the body will pass Jupiter at the same time and place in each orbit and Jupiter’s gravity will pull strongest on the body at the same time and place in each orbit. Over many orbits the slight tug will incrementally draw the junior body out of a circular path and into ever more eccentric ellipses. Eventually this oblong orbit will intersect the orbits of the terrestrial planets. [3] This phenomenon is called decompression or adiabatic melting is a key feature of plate tectonics on Earth today. [4] The age of Borealis Basin is somewhat controversial. Without direct access to the physical crater we rely on the fragments of Mars that fall to Earth as meteorites. The oldest known igneous Martian meteorite ALH84001 was forged through the accumulation of crystals floating in a body of magma. It’s therefore postulated that ALH84001 was created during or after the Borealis impact as this event melted half of Mars and deeply buried the other half, erasing any trace of prior martian history. [5] Around 40% of all meteorites found are classified as H chondrites and most likely originate ultimately from the asteroid 6 Hebe. Around 35% are L chondrites and likely originate from either 433 Eros or 8 Flora. Mesosiderites from 16 Psyche and eucrites from 4 Vesta round off the list of four parent asteroids upon which we find evidence of impacts between 3.5 GA and 4.1 GA. It’s a short list. [6] Obsessive investigations into the most resilient minerals on the planet, Hadean zircons, unveil a slight bump in temperature between 3.8 and 4.0 billion years ago--the lingering trauma of an otherworldly pummeling? But in all the world only 4 miniscule mineral grains record the bump. [7] Noting our inability to acquire physical evidence from other planets scientists sought a different way to date geologic features. Since surface imagery was comparatively abundant a sophisticated statistical method was developed to assess age by counting the size and frequency of craters present on a terrain and comparing this size frequency distribution (SFD) to that of a known terrain. This process is fairly effective at achieving relative ages, but caught criticism for some assumptions it makes. [8] At first glance it appears impossible that the Apollo 16 and 17 sample should come from the Imbrium impact, in each case over a thousand kilometers away. Improved imagery acquired decades later however reveals a radial pattern of debris emanating from Imbrium Basin that overprints both landing sites. [9] Imbrium is the youngest basin on the near-side of the Moon; much of the volcanism on Mercury ceased by that time; the major basins of Mars all betray the ephemeral presence of liquid water before it vanished from the planet. Echos of this early era still reverberate through the Solar System; solitary giants can wreak havoc especially on our fragile ecosystems, but the terrible scale of the calamity has never again been matched. [10] In the interest of full disclosure, a continuous (monotonic) bombardment is the perspective that makes the most sense to me. Not only because the physical evidence is sparse and is getting sparser but because the erasure of terrestrial history is a throughline of geology. The destructive power of geologic processes has been on display throughout this narrative and it is a very sensible explanation for the negative anomaly we find in the impact history (a negative anomaly which is now significantly shorter than the “spike” of the LHB.) Furthermore models have consistently shown that while orbital evolution among the gas giants should be expected early on, it’s exceptionally rare for this dynamism to last more than a few 100 MA and virtually impossible for the orbits to calm for several 100 MA then return to a dynamic state. In the absence of a convincing causal mechanism I personally conclude that the LHB is fictitious. (William Painter) Thanks to: Mitch Ames - Moon Rock the Illinois State Museum - Moon Rock Mangolava Imbrium Crater By Brocken Inaglory, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... with landing numbers) NASA/JPL-Caltech Epidemic Sound for the music

Researched and Written by William Painter Revised by Pete & David Kelly Narrated and Edited by David Kelly Art Provided by Khail Kupsky Thumbnail by Ettore Mazza [1] A collection of radioactive chronometers were employed to reach this date. Most notably these include pairings of U-Pb, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Ar40-Ar39, each of these including a parent atom and a decay product. [2] Jupiter’s gargantuan mass can inflict chaos on the orbits of smaller bodies over millions and billions of rotations. The danger becomes acute if the orbit of the junior body reflects a ratio of Jupiter’s orbit (for example if the body orbits twice for every single orbit of Jupiter.) In this case the body will pass Jupiter at the same time and place in each orbit and Jupiter’s gravity will pull strongest on the body at the same time and place in each orbit. Over many orbits the slight tug will incrementally draw the junior body out of a circular path and into ever more eccentric ellipses. Eventually this oblong orbit will intersect the orbits of the terrestrial planets. [3] This phenomenon is called decompression or adiabatic melting is a key feature of plate tectonics on Earth today. [4] The age of Borealis Basin is somewhat controversial. Without direct access to the physical crater we rely on the fragments of Mars that fall to Earth as meteorites. The oldest known igneous Martian meteorite ALH84001 was forged through the accumulation of crystals floating in a body of magma. It’s therefore postulated that ALH84001 was created during or after the Borealis impact as this event melted half of Mars and deeply buried the other half, erasing any trace of prior martian history. [5] Around 40% of all meteorites found are classified as H chondrites and most likely originate ultimately from the asteroid 6 Hebe. Around 35% are L chondrites and likely originate from either 433 Eros or 8 Flora. Mesosiderites from 16 Psyche and eucrites from 4 Vesta round off the list of four parent asteroids upon which we find evidence of impacts between 3.5 GA and 4.1 GA. It’s a short list. [6] Obsessive investigations into the most resilient minerals on the planet, Hadean zircons, unveil a slight bump in temperature between 3.8 and 4.0 billion years ago--the lingering trauma of an otherworldly pummeling? But in all the world only 4 miniscule mineral grains record the bump. [7] Noting our inability to acquire physical evidence from other planets scientists sought a different way to date geologic features. Since surface imagery was comparatively abundant a sophisticated statistical method was developed to assess age by counting the size and frequency of craters present on a terrain and comparing this size frequency distribution (SFD) to that of a known terrain. This process is fairly effective at achieving relative ages, but caught criticism for some assumptions it makes. [8] At first glance it appears impossible that the Apollo 16 and 17 sample should come from the Imbrium impact, in each case over a thousand kilometers away. Improved imagery acquired decades later however reveals a radial pattern of debris emanating from Imbrium Basin that overprints both landing sites. [9] Imbrium is the youngest basin on the near-side of the Moon; much of the volcanism on Mercury ceased by that time; the major basins of Mars all betray the ephemeral presence of liquid water before it vanished from the planet. Echos of this early era still reverberate through the Solar System; solitary giants can wreak havoc especially on our fragile ecosystems, but the terrible scale of the calamity has never again been matched. [10] In the interest of full disclosure, a continuous (monotonic) bombardment is the perspective that makes the most sense to me. Not only because the physical evidence is sparse and is getting sparser but because the erasure of terrestrial history is a throughline of geology. The destructive power of geologic processes has been on display throughout this narrative and it is a very sensible explanation for the negative anomaly we find in the impact history (a negative anomaly which is now significantly shorter than the “spike” of the LHB.) Furthermore models have consistently shown that while orbital evolution among the gas giants should be expected early on, it’s exceptionally rare for this dynamism to last more than a few 100 MA and virtually impossible for the orbits to calm for several 100 MA then return to a dynamic state. In the absence of a convincing causal mechanism I personally conclude that the LHB is fictitious. (William Painter) Thanks to: Mitch Ames - Moon Rock the Illinois State Museum - Moon Rock Mangolava Imbrium Crater By Brocken Inaglory, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... with landing numbers) NASA/JPL-Caltech Epidemic Sound for the music

Written & Researched by Leila Battison. Check out her channel:- / @somethingincredible Script & video edited & by Pete Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @petekellyhistory Narrated by David Kelly. Check out his channel:- / @voicesofthepast Thumbnail Art by Ettore Mazza Artwork by Khail Kupsky References:- https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/197... https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/ov... https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/201... https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/mission... https://helix.northwestern.edu/articl... Image Credits:- SIMS analysis of Primaevifilum amoenum, an Apex chert microfossil found in Western Australia, is interpreted to be a methane-consuming γ-Proteobacterium. Source: J.W. Schopf, UCLA. https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/nai/art... https://link.springer.com/referencewo... https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Hi... https://theconversation.com/how-we-di... By Paul Harrison - Photograph taken by Paul Harrison (Reading, UK) using a Sony CyberShot DSC-H1 digital camera., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By Didier Descouens - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index... By Ruth Ellison - https://www.flickr.com/photos/laruth/..., CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index...