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The resulting food web is so connected that almost every species is no more than two degrees from detritus, even us humans.You probably don't eat rotting things, poop, or pond scum directly,but your food sources probably do.Many animals we eat either feed directly on detritus themselves,like pork, poultry, mushrooms, shellfish, or catfish and other bottom feeders,or they are fed animal by-products.So, if you're thinking nature is full of waste,you're right.But one organism's garbage is another's gold,and all that rotting dead stuff ultimately provides the energy that nourishes usand most of life on Earth, as it passes through the food web. Now that's some food for thought.

But it's not. All detritus is ultimately consumed by microbes and other scavengers,so it actually forms the base of the brown food chain that supports many other organisms, including us.Scientists are learning that this detritus is an unexpectedly huge energy source,fueling most natural ecosystems.But the interactions within an ecosystem are even more complex than that.What a food chain really represents is a single pathway of energy flow. And within any ecosystem,many of these flows are linked together to form a rich network of interactions, or food web, with dead matter supporting that network at every step.

That becomes detritus,the base of what we call the brown food chain,which looks more like this.What happens to plants also happens to all other organisms up the food chain:some are eaten alive,but most are eaten only when they're dead and rotting.And all along this food chain,living things shed organic matter and expel digestive waste before dying and leaving their remains to decay.All that death sounds grim, right?

These green food chains start with living plants at their base.But in real-life terrestrial ecosystems,less than 10% of plant matter is eaten while it's still alive. What about the other 90?Well, just look at the ground on an autumn day.Living plants shed dead body parts:fallen leaves, broken branches,and even underground roots. Many plants are lucky enough to go their whole lives without being eaten,eventually dying and leaving remains.All of these uneaten, undigested, and dead plant parts, that 90% of terrestrial plant matter?

If someone called you scum,you'd probably be offended,but scientifically,they might not be far off.Have you ever thought about where your food comes from? You might say it comes from plants, animals, or even fungi.but you'd probably rather not think about the rotting organisms and poop that feed those plants, animals, and fungi.So really, you and most of the matter in your body are just two or three degrees of separation from things like pond scum.All species in an ecosystem,from the creatures in a coral reef to the fish in a lake to the lions on the savannah, are directly or indirectly nourished by dead stuff.

Most of the organic matter in our bodies,if we trace it back far enough,comes from CO2 and water through photosynthesis.Plants use the energy from sunlight to transform carbon dioxide and water from the environment into glucose and oxygen. That glucose is then transformed into more complex organic molecules to form leaves, stems, roots, fruit, and so on.The energy stored in these organic molecules supports the food chains with which we're familiar. You've probably seen illustrations like this or this.

Every crystal’s atomic structure has unique properties, and while these properties may not have any bearing on human emotional needs, they do have powerful applications in materials science and medicine.

Many crystals don’t form geometric shapes because they grow in extremely close quarters with other crystals. Rocks like granite are full of crystals, but none have recognizable shapes. As magma cools and solidifies, many minerals within it crystallize at the same time and quickly run out of space. And certain crystals, like turquoise, don’t grow into any discernible geometric shape in most environmental conditions, even given adequate space.

And diamonds never naturally grow into the shapes found in jewelry— those diamonds have been cut to showcase sparkle and clarity. Environmental conditions can also influence whether crystals form at all. Glass is made of melted quartz sand, but it isn’t crystalline. That’s because glass cools relatively quickly, and the atoms do not have time to arrange themselves into the ordered structure of a quartz crystal. Instead, the random arrangement of the atoms in the melted glass is locked in upon cooling.

Which shape a particular diamond grows into depends on the conditions where it grows, including pressure, temperature, and chemical environment. While we can’t directly observe growth conditions in the mantle, laboratory experiments have shown some evidence that diamonds tend to grow into cubes at lower temperatures and octahedrons at higher temperatures. Trace amounts of water, silicon, germanium, or magnesium might also influence a diamond’s shape.

In three dimensions, these hexagons are composed of many interlocking pyramids made up of one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms.So the signature shape of a quartz crystal is a six-sided column with pointed tips. Depending on environmental conditions,most crystals have the potential to form multiple geometric shapes. For example, diamonds, which form deep in the Earth’s mantle, have a cubic crystalline structure and can grow into either cubes or octahedrons.

As the crystal grows, locations like these attract sulfur atoms, while lead will tend to bond to these places. Eventually, they will complete the grid of bonded atoms. This means the 90 degree grid pattern of galena’s crystalline structure is reflected in the visible shape of the crystal. Quartz, meanwhile, has a hexagonal crystalline structure. This means that on one plane its atoms are arranged in hexagons.

Each crystalline material’s atomic arrangement falls into one of six different families: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, and hexagonal. Given the appropriate conditions, crystals will grow into geometric shapes that reflect the arrangement of their atoms. Take galena, which has a cubic structure composed of lead and sulfur atoms. The relatively large lead atoms are arranged in a three-dimensional grid 90 degrees from one another, while the relatively small sulfur atoms fit neatly between them.

Deep beneath the geysers and hot springs of Yellowstone Caldera lies a magma chamber produced by a hot spot in the earth’s mantle. As the magma moves towards the Earth’s surface, it crystallizes to form young, hot igneous rocks. The heat from these rocks drives groundwater towards the surface. As the water cools, ions precipitate out as mineral crystals, including quartz crystals from silicon and oxygen, feldspar from potassium, aluminum, silicon, and oxygen, galena from lead and sulfur.

Many of these crystals have signature shapes—take this cascade of pointed quartz, or this pile of galena cubes. But what causes them to grow into these shapes again and again? Part of the answer lies in their atoms. Every crystal’s atoms are arranged in a highly organized, repeating pattern. This pattern is the defining feature of a crystal, and isn’t restricted to minerals— sand, ice, sugar, chocolate, ceramics, metals, DNA,and even some liquids have crystalline structures.

Fortunately, some communities have already realized how important vultures are. Conservationists have successfully banned drugs like Diclofenac, while other researchers are working to repopulate vulture communities through breeding programs. Some regions have even opened vulture restaurants where farmers safely dispose of drug-free livestock. With help, vultures will be able to continue their role conserving the health of our planet— transforming death and decay into life.

These birds have evolved the lowest gastric pH in the animal kingdom, allowing them to digest diseased carrion and waste without becoming sick. In fact, species like the mountain-dwelling bearded vulture have stomachs so acidic, they can digest most bones in just 24 hours. This adaptation helps smaller vultures supplement their diet with dung, while larger vultures can consume diseased meat up to 3 days old. Their acidic stomachs protect them from living animals too: their rancid vomit scares off most predators.

High above the commotion are Ruppell’s Griffon vultures. Soaring at an altitude of over 11,000 meters, these birds fly higher than any other animal. At this height, they can’t see individual carcasses. But the sight of their fellow vultures guides them to the feeding. Their featherless heads help them regulate the sudden rise in temperature as they descend— and keep them clean as they tear into the decaying gazelle. The carcass is stripped clean in hours, well before the rotting meat infects the water supply. And the tuberculosis doesn’t stand a chance at infecting the vultures.

This colossal competition is too dangerous for the tiny Egyptian vulture. With a wingspan of only 180 centimeters, this vulture migrated to Africa from his family nest in Portugal, using thermal updrafts to stay aloft for hours at a time. But upon arrival, he finds himself near the bottom of the pecking order. Fortunately, what he lacks in size, he makes up for in intelligence. A short distance away, he spots an unguarded ostrich nest, full of immense, but impenetrable eggs. Using a large rock, he smashes one open for a well-earned meal— though he’ll circle back to the gazelle once the larger birds are gone.

In the grasslands of Mauritania, a gazelle suffering from tuberculosis takes its last breath. Collapsing near a small pool, the animal’s corpse threatens to infect the water. But for the desert’s cleanup crew, this body isn’t a problem: it’s a feast. Weighing up to 10 kilograms and possessing a wingspan of nearly 3 meters, the lappet-faced vulture is the undisputed king of the carcass. This bird’s powerful beak and strong neck easily tear through tough hide and muscle tissue, opening entry points for weaker vultures to dig in.