Medieval Caliph Explains How to Govern Justly | Letter 53 of the Peak of Eloquence (Nahjul Balagha)

About the letter:

Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (600–661 CE / 23 BH–40 AH)is a towering figure in Islamic history, whose spiritual, intellectual, and political leadership continues to inspire Muslims across the world. He occupies a unique place in both Sunni and Shia Islam: for Shia Muslims, he is the first Imam and the divinely appointed successor to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). For Sunni Muslims, he is honored as the fourth of the “Rightly Guided Caliphs” (al-Khulafā’ al-Rāshidūn) and one of the most devoted companions of the Prophet.

Born in Mecca in 600 CE (23 BH), Ali was raised in the Prophet’s household from a young age. Ali was also the Prophet’s son-in-law, having married Fatimah al-Zahra, the Prophet’s beloved daughter. This familial bond placed Ali at the very heart of the Prophet’s household (Ahl al-Bayt), a status that would become central to his spiritual and political legacy.

Imam Ali was the first male to accept Islam, embracing the faith as a young boy. Throughout the Prophet’s life, Ali remained a steadfast supporter, risking his own life to protect him during the migration (Hijrah) to Medina by sleeping in the Prophet’s bed to deceive assassins.

In addition to his spiritual devotion, Ali was renowned as the greatest warrior of early Islam. His valor was demonstrated in nearly every major battle, including Badr (624 CE / 2 AH), Uhud (625 CE / 3 AH), Khandaq (627 CE / 5 AH), and Khaybar (628 CE / 7 AH), where he performed extraordinary feats of bravery. His titles—such as “Asadullah” (the Lion of God)—testify to the deep respect he commanded among the Prophet’s companions.

But Imam Ali’s greatness was not confined to the battlefield. He is universally recognized as the greatest intellect of early Islam. His sermons, letters, and sayings—compiled in the Nahj al-Balāghah—are masterpieces of Arabic eloquence and profound spiritual wisdom. Scholars of all major Islamic schools of thought, from Sunni to Shia, as well as nearly all Sufi tariqahs, claim spiritual and intellectual lineage from Imam Ali. His insights on justice, piety, and social equity shaped early Islamic philosophy and theology, laying the groundwork for subsequent generations of scholars and mystics.

Context of the Letter to Malik al-Ashtar

The assassination of Uthman ibn Affan (the third Rightly Guided Caliph in Sunni Islam) in 656 CE (35 AH) plunged the Muslim world into turmoil. In the immediate aftermath, the vast majority of the Prophet’s companions and the residents of Medina turned to Imam Ali as the most worthy and trusted leader, swearing allegiance to him as the fourth caliph of Islam. Thus, Ali became the de facto leader of the Muslim ummah, facing a community beset by civil strife.

Ali’s caliphate (656–661 CE / 35–40 AH) was marked by the challenges of the First Fitna—the first Islamic civil war. Powerful factions opposed his leadership, leading to battles such as the Battle of the Camel (656 CE / 36 AH) and the Battle of Siffin (657 CE / 37 AH). Amid these upheavals, Ali worked tirelessly to uphold justice and restore unity.

Egypt, a key province of the caliphate, was especially vulnerable during this time. Initially governed by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (d. 658 CE / 38 AH), the son of the first caliph Abu Bakr and a loyal ally of Ali, Egypt became a target of Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria and Ali’s chief rival.

Recognizing the critical importance of Egypt and the threat posed by Muawiyah’s forces, Imam Ali appointed Malik al-Ashtar al-Nakha’i as governor of Egypt in 658 CE (38 AH). Malik was not only a formidable warrior but also a deeply pious and loyal supporter of Ali. His steadfastness in battle and moral integrity made him one of Ali’s most trusted companions.

Unfortunately, Malik al-Ashtar never reached Egypt. According to most historical accounts, he was assassinated en route in 658 CE (38 AH), poisoned at the behest of Muawiyah. His death was a severe blow to Ali’s efforts to maintain stability in Egypt and defend it from external threats.

Shortly afterward, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who was still in Egypt at the time, was also killed by Muawiyah’s forces under the command of Amr ibn al-As. He was captured and executed in 658 CE (38 AH), further cementing Muawiyah’s control over Egypt and undermining Ali’s authority in the province.

Source: Nahj al-Balāghah: The Wisdom and Eloquence of ʿAlī: A Parallel English-Arabic Text (Islamic Translation Series, Volume 15), meticulously edited and translated by Tahera Qutbuddin. Available in open source: https://brill.com/display/title/69007...

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