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JFK Assassination: Was the Warren Commission Correct? Part 4 (1967)
On November 27—five days after the assassination—President Johnson delivered his "Let Us Continue" speech to Congress.[295] Effectively an inaugural address,[296] Johnson called for the realization of Kennedy's policies, particularly on civil rights; this effort soon materialized as the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[297] Confusion surrounding Johnson's succession led to the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S Constitution, which was adopted in 1967 and affirmed that the vice president became president upon the president's death.[298]
On November 29, President Johnson issued Executive Order 11129, renaming Florida's Cape Canaveral—a name borne since at least 1530—to Cape Kennedy.[299][note 13] NASA's Launch Operations Center, located on the cape, was also renamed as the Kennedy Space Center.[301] The federal government honored Kennedy in other ways, such as replacing the Benjamin Franklin half dollar with the Kennedy half dollar,[294] and renaming Washington, D.C.'s long-planned National Culture Center as the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.[302] New York City's airport was also renamed as the John F. Kennedy International Airport.[303]
Kennedy's assassination also resulted in an overhaul of the Secret Service and its procedures. Open limousines were eliminated, staffing was significantly increased, and specialized teams like counter-sniper units were established. The agency's budget has also increased, from $5.5 million in 1963 (equivalent to $42 million in 2013) to over $1.6 billion by the 50th anniversary in 2013.[304]
Cultural impact and depictions
See also: Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture
They say they can't believe it; It's a sacrilegious shame.
Now, who would want to hurt such a hero of the game?
But you know I predicted it; I knew he had to fall.
How did it happen? Hope his suffering was small.
Tell me every detail, for I've got to know it all,
And do you have a picture of the pain?
— Phil Ochs' song "Crucifixion" (1966)[305]
John F. Kennedy's assassination was the first of four major assassinations during the 1960s, coming two years before the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, and five years before the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy in 1968.[306] For the public, Kennedy's assassination mythologized him into a heroic figure.[307] Although scholars typically regard Kennedy as a good but not great president,[308] public opinion polls consistently find him the most popular post-WWII president.[308][309]
Kennedy's murder left a lasting impression on many worldwide. As with the attack on Pearl Harbor of December 7, 1941, and, much later, the September 11 attacks in 2001, asking "Where were you when you heard about President Kennedy's assassination?" became a common topic of discussion.[310][311][312][313][314] Journalist Dan Rather opined that the Kennedy assassination will be discussed "a hundred years from now, a thousand years from now, in somewhat the same way as people discuss the Iliad. Different people read Homer's description of the war and come to different conclusions, and so it shall be for Kennedy's death."[315]
Along with Oliver Stone's JFK, the assassination has been portrayed in several films: the pro-conspiracy, Dalton Trumbo–written Executive Action (1973) was the first feature film to depict the assassination.[316] Besides explicit portrayals, some critics have argued that the Zapruder film—which itself has been featured in many films and television episodes—advanced cinéma vérité or inspired more graphic depictions of violence in American cinema.[173][317][318][319] Many works of literature have also explored the killing, such as Don DeLillo's 1988 novel Libra in which Oswald is a CIA agent,[320] James Ellroy's 1995 work American Tabloid,[321] and Stephen King's 2011 time travel novel 11/22/63.[322] The assassination has also been featured in several musical compositions, such as Igor Stravinsky's 1964 piece Elegy for J.F.K. and Phil Ochs' 1966 song "Crucifixion",[323][324] which reportedly brought Robert Kennedy to tears.[324][325] Other songs include "Abraham, Martin and John" (1968) and Bob Dylan's "Murder Most Foul" (2020).[326][327]
Artifacts, museums, and locations today
A painted white "X" marks where the spot on Elm Street where the fatal bullet hit Kennedy in Dealey Plaza
An "X" in the Dealey Plaza roadway marks where the fatal bullet struck Kennedy.[328]
In 1993, the National Park Service designated Dealey Plaza, the surrounding buildings, the overpass, and a portion of the adjacent railyard as a National Historic Landmark District.[328] The Depository and its Sixth Floor Museum, operated by the city of Dallas, draw over 325,000 visitors annually.[329]
The Boeing 707 that served as Air Force One at the time of the assassination is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force; Kennedy's limousine is at the Henry Ford Museum.[330] The Lincoln Catafalque, on which Kennedy's coffin rested in the Capitol, is exhibited at the Capitol Visitor Center.[331] Jacqueline's pink suit, autopsy X-rays, and President Kennedy's blood-stained clothing are in the National Archives, with access controlled by the Kennedy family. Other items in the Archives include Parkland Hospital trauma room equipment; Oswald's rifle, diary, and revolver; bullet fragments; and the limousine's windshield.[330] The Texas State Archives preserve Connally's bullet-punctured clothes; the gun Ruby used to kill Oswald came into the possession of Ruby's brother Earl, and was sold in 1991 for $220,000 (equivalent to $439,000 in 2022).[332]
At the direction of Robert F. Kennedy, some items were destroyed. The casket in which Kennedy's body was transported from Dallas to Washington was dropped into the sea, because "its public display would be extremely offensive and contrary to public policy".[333]
Notes and references
Notes
This photo and a similar one are known as the "backyard photographs"; according to Bugliosi, it is one of the pieces of evidence most damning for Oswald. Oswald told Dallas police that the photographs were not genuine and that someone must have superimposed his head.[15] Marina Oswald testified that she took the pictures.[16]
In 1964, KGB Agent Yuri Nosenko defected to the United States. He divulged that Soviet intelligence surveilled Oswald, regarded him as mentally unstable, and had no association with him.[24] Although the FBI trusted Nosenko, the CIA believed that he was a mole and convinced the Warren Commission not to interview him.[25]
At Oswald's request, he met with FBI Special Agent John Quigley while in custody. Posner cites this as proof that Oswald was not a government agent, questioning why he might "blow his cover".[39]
Jack Dougherty, the only witness who saw Oswald enter the Depository on the morning of the assassination, testified to the Warren Commission that he did not remember seeing Oswald with any package.[44] Bugliosi questioned his reliability as a witness: Dougherty's father told FBI agents on November 23 that his son "had considerable difficulty in coordinating his mental facilities with his speech".[45]
After the first shot, witness Virgie Rachley—an employee at the Texas School Book Depository—reported seeing sparks on the pavement shortly behind the president's limousine.[62]
Student Billy Harper later found a fragment of Kennedy's skull on the road.[80]
The journalists pictured with them arrived as the end of the motorcade passed through Dealey Plaza.[89]
Bugliosi notes that Lee Bowers Jr. did not mention the "commotion" in an earlier affidavit, in which Bowers did take time to list all other suspicious happenings like circling vehicles with "Goldwater for '64" stickers. Moreover, conspiracy theorist Jim Moore questions whether Bowers could even have seen the area. Bowers testified that he "threw [the] red-on-red [signal]" just after the fatal shot, but the grassy knoll was partially obstructed from Bowers' position at the work panel.[95]
Three spent cartridges were found on the floor. One live round was found in the rifle. Dallas policemen thoroughly photographed the rifle before its removal.[104]
Lieutenant Day of the Dallas police examined the weapon prior to its seizure by the FBI. He found and photographed fingerprints on the trigger housing. Although Day believed the prints to be those of Oswald's right middle and ring fingers, the ridges were not clear enough to make a positive identification. Day then discovered a palm-print on the barrel underneath the wooden stock. He tentatively identified it as Oswald's, but was not able to photograph or analyze it in more depth as the FBI took the Carcano.[108] In D.C., FBI fingerprint expert Sebastian Latona found the photographs and extant prints to be "insufficient" as to make any conclusion. The rifle was returned to the Dallas police on November 24.[107] Five days later, the FBI made a positive identification using a card from Day.[109]
At the time of Kennedy's assassination, most of his cabinet was on a trip to Japan.[126]
Nix himself believed that the shots had come from the grassy knoll.[182]
In 1973, due to Floridians' discontent with the change, Florida Governor Reubin Askew mandated that Cape Kennedy be referred to as Cape Canaveral on all state documents and maps. The U.S. Board of Geographic Names accepted the name change later that year.[300]
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Books
Boyd, John W. (2015). Parkland. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 9781467134002.
United Press International; American Heritage (1964). Four Days: The Historical Record of the Death of President Kennedy. American Heritage Pub. Co. OCLC 923323127.
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Bugliosi, Vincent (2008). Four Days in November: The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 9780393332155.
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Cilento, Fabrizio (2018). The Ontology of Replay: The Zapruder Video and American Conspiracy Films. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9783030064891.
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Government and institutional documents and reports
Hoover, J. Edgar (December 1, 1963). Reaction of Soviet and Communist Party Officials to JFK Assassination (PDF) (Report). National Archives.
Warren, Earl (1964). Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy. United States Government Printing Office. ASIN B0065RJ63E.
Clark, Ramsey (1968). 1968 Panel Review of Photographs, X-Ray Films, Documents and Other Evidence Pertaining to the Fatal Wounding of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas (Report). United States Government Printing Office.
Stokes, Louis (1979). Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations of the U.S. House of Representatives (Report). United States Government Printing Office. Archived from the original on April 3, 2020.
HSCA Appendix to Hearings (Report). Archived from the original on July 1, 2022 – via History Matters Archive.
Assassination Records Review Board (September 30, 1998). "Chapter 1: The Problem of Secrecy and the JFK Act" (PDF). Final Report of the Assassination Records Review Board. United States Government Printing Office. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 11, 2021.
Report of the Committee on Ballistic Acoustics. National Research Council. 1982. doi:10.17226/10264. ISBN 9780309253727. Archived from the original on December 6, 2013.
Assassination Records Review Board (September 30, 1998). Final Report of the Assassination Records Review Board (PDF) (Report). United States Government Printing Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 11, 2021.
Warren Commission documents, exhibits, and testimonies
Testimony of Gov. John Bowden Connally, Jr. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. IV. pp. 129–146. Archived from the original on March 15, 2013 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Mrs. John Bowden Connally, Jr. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. IV. pp. 146–149. Archived from the original on March 15, 2013 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Mrs. John F. Kennedy. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. V. June 5, 1964. pp. 178–181. Archived from the original on October 23, 2013 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Dr. Robert Roeder Shaw. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. IV. pp. 101–117. Archived from the original on July 20, 2013 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Notes of interview of Lee Harvey Oswald — Certified military pay records for Lee Harvey Oswald for the period October 24, 1956, to September 11, 1959. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. 22. p. 705. Archived from the original on October 19, 2007 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Warren Commission Hearings, Folsom Exhibit No. 1 (cont'd) (Report). Vol. XIX Folsom. p. 734. Archived from the original on January 11, 2012.
Testimony of James Thomas Tague. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. VII. July 23, 1964. pp. 552–558. Archived from the original on July 20, 2013 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Clinton J. Hill, Special Agent, Secret Service. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. II. pp. 132–144. Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Bobby W. Hargis. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. VI. April 8, 1964. pp. 293–296. Archived from the original on September 25, 2012 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Clyde A. Haygood. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. VI. April 9, 1964. pp. 296–302. Archived from the original on July 20, 2013 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Commission Exhibit 2564 - Cuban visa application of Lee Harvey Oswald, September 27, 1963. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. 25. p. 418. Archived from the original on January 11, 2012 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Jack Ruby. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. V. pp. 198–200. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Kenneth P. O'Donnell. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. VII. pp. 440–457. Archived from the original on January 25, 2012 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Howard Brennan. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Vol. III. pp. 144–145. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Testimony of Lee E. Bowers, Jr. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). Archived from the original on June 26, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2021.
Report of Capt. J. W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). pp. 599–611. Archived from the original on October 8, 2012 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
Reports of Agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Warren Commission Hearings (Report). pp. 612–625. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012 – via Assassination Archives and Research Center.
"National Archives Releases JFK Assassination Records". October 26, 2017. Archived from the original on April 22, 2020.
"Memorandum for the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies on the Temporary Certification Regarding Disclosure of Information in Certain Records Related to the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy". The White House. October 23, 2021. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021.
Journal articles
Ball, Moya Ann (Winter 1994). "The Phantom of the Oval Office: The John F. Kennedy Assassination's Symbolic Impact on Lyndon B. Johnson, His Key Advisers, and the Vietnam Decision-Making Process". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 24 (1): 105–119. JSTOR 27551197.
Evica, George Michael (1992). "Deconstructing the DA: The Garrison Image in JFK". Cinéaste. 19 (1): 17–19. JSTOR 41688060.
Fantova, Johanna (Autumn 1964). Cape Canaveral to Cape Kennedy. The Princeton University Library Chronicle (Report). Vol. 26. Princeton University. pp. 57–62. JSTOR 26402928.
Holland, Max (2001). "The Lie That Linked CIA to the Kennedy Assassination". Studies in Intelligence. 45 (5).
Huber, Patrick (Winter 2007). "Father Oscar Huber, the Kennedy Assassination, and the News Leak Controversy: A Research Note". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 110 (3): 380–393. doi:10.1353/swh.2007.0016. ISSN 0038-478X. JSTOR 30240454. S2CID 143939686.
Kurtz, Michael L. (November 1982). "The Assassination of John F. Kennedy: A Historical Perspective". The Historian. 45 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1982.tb01568.x. JSTOR 24445228.
Ogg, E. Jerald (Spring 2004). "Life and the Prosecution of Clay Shaw: A More Curious Silence". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 45 (2): 133–149. JSTOR 4233998.
Payne, Anthony (Summer 1965). "Stravinsky's 'Abraham and Isaac' and 'Elegy for J. F. K.'". Tempo. 73 (73): 12–15. doi:10.1017/S0040298200033520. JSTOR 942857. S2CID 145010719.
Reitzes, David (Summer 2013). "JFK conspiracy theories at 50: how the skeptics got it wrong and why it matters". Skeptic. 18 (3).
Stafford, Ned (July 13, 2012). "Earl Rose: Pathologist prevented from performing autopsy on US President John F Kennedy" (PDF). BMJ. 345. doi:10.1136/bmj.e4768. S2CID 220100505. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 4, 2014.
Thomas, Glen (Spring 1997). "History, Biography, and Narrative in Don DeLillo's Libra". Twentieth Century Literature. 43 (1): 107–124. doi:10.2307/441866. JSTOR 441866.
Tunheim, John R. (Winter 2000). "Assassination Records Review Board: Unlocking the Government's Secret Files on the Murder of a President". The Public Lawyer. 8 (1).
Witherspoon, Patricia D. (Summer 1987). ""Let Us Continue:" The Rhetorical Initiation of Lyndon Johnson's Presidency". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 17 (3): 531–539. JSTOR 27550444.
Magazines
Bagdikian, Ben H. (December 14, 1963). Blair, Clay Jr. (ed.). "The Assassin". The Saturday Evening Post (44). The Curtis Publishing Company.
Friedman, Rick (November 30, 1963). "Pictures of the Assassination Fall to Amateurs on Street". Editor & Publisher.
Kirkwood Jr., James (December 1, 1968). "So here you are, Clay Shaw, twenty months and thousands of dollars after being charged with conspiracy in the worst crime of the century. What are you doing about it?". Esquire.
News publications and websites
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"Biographical sketch of Dr. George Gregory Burkley, Arlington National Cemetery". Arlington National Cemetery. Archived from the original on January 12, 2009. Retrieved April 28, 2009.
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Brinkley, Alan (September 19, 2013). "The Legacy of John F. Kennedy". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
Burkley, George Gregory (November 23, 1963). Certificate of Death. National Archives and Records Administration. front side, back side. NAVMED Form N – via The President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection.
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Lawson, Mark (November 2, 2011). "11.22.63 by Stephen King - review". The Guardian.
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Lengel, Edward G. "Igor Stravinsky at the White House". The White House Historical Association. Retrieved September 6, 2023.
Lethbridge, Cliff. "History of Cape Canaveral". Spaceline. Archived from the original on November 26, 2022. Retrieved June 5, 2023.
"Letter from Assistant Attorney General William F. Weld to Peter W. Rodino Jr., undated" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on November 9, 2021. Retrieved October 19, 2014.
MacAskill, Ewan (February 20, 2007). "New JFK film: 90 seconds to assassination". The Guardian.
"Majority in U.S. Still Believe JFK Killed in a Conspiracy: Mafia, federal government top list of potential conspirators". Gallup, Inc. November 15, 2013. Archived from the original on August 1, 2016.
Margolick, David (June 5, 2018). "How Robert Kennedy Inspired 'Abraham, Martin and John'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 20, 2023. Retrieved May 19, 2023.
Maslin, Janet (October 30, 2011). "Race Across Time to Stop Assassin and Fall in Love". The New York Times. Retrieved September 6, 2023.
Matza, Max (December 15, 2022). "Thousands of unedited government JFK assassination files released". BBC. Archived from the original on December 19, 2022. Retrieved December 19, 2022.
McAdams, John (November 22, 1963). "The JFK Assassination Dallas Police Tapes: History in Real Time". The Kennedy Assassination. Marquette University. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Michaud, Jon (November 22, 2011). "Updike, J.F.K., and the Umbrella Man". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on June 5, 2023. Retrieved June 4, 2023.
Morris, Errol (November 10, 2011). "Stephen King Goes to the Rescue of JFK". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 26, 2023. Retrieved May 28, 2023.
Munson, Kyle (April 28, 2012). "Munson: Iowan more than a footnote in JFK lore". The Des Moines Register. Indianapolis. Archived from the original on April 10, 2013. Retrieved November 3, 2014.
"Music: Stravinsky Leads; Composer Conducts at Philharmonic Hall". The New York Times. December 7, 1964. Retrieved May 28, 2023.
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"Newly released film of JFK before assassination". MSNBC. NBC News. Associated Press. February 19, 2007. Archived from the original on January 11, 2018. Retrieved May 1, 2017.
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Pappalardo, Joe (October 30, 2017). "'We Want Them to Shut Up': The Two Dallas Cops Who Earned Hoover's Ire After JFK Killing". Dallas Observer. Retrieved June 24, 2023.
Pasternack, Alex (November 22, 2011). "Murder and Zapruder: Who Should Own the Rawest, Most Valuable Home Movie?". Vice. Retrieved June 11, 2023.
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"Phil Burleson, 61, Jack Ruby's Lawyer". The New York Times. June 1, 1995. Archived from the original on September 15, 2017. Retrieved September 19, 2015.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Assassination of John F. Kennedy.
The Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza (archived May 26, 2008)
The President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection – National Archives and Records Administration
JFK Assassination:A look back at the death of President John F. Kennedy 50 years ago – CBS News
"November 22, 1963: Death of the President". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
"Weisberg Collection on the JFK Assassination" – Internet Archive
LIFE Magazine Nov. 25, 1966
John F. Kennedy Assassination Collection finding aid at University of Texas at Arlington Libraries Special Collections via Texas Archival Resources Online (TARO)
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