Episode 1555: City of God - St. Augustine - Book 7 - On virtue and the good life

Book 7: Augustine critiques the philosophy of the Stoics and their views on virtue and the good life.
Book 7 of Augustine's "City of God," Augustine turns his attention to the philosophy of the Stoics. He engages in a critical examination of Stoic thought, particularly their views on virtue and the good life.

Introduction to Stoicism:
Augustine begins by introducing the philosophy of Stoicism, which was a prominent school of thought in ancient Greece and Rome. He acknowledges the Stoics' influence on Roman culture and intellectual discourse.
Stoic Views on Virtue:
Augustine delves into the Stoic conception of virtue. He explains that the Stoics believed that virtue (arete) was the highest and only true good. They considered it to be both necessary and sufficient for a flourishing and fulfilled life.

The Stoics believed that virtue (in Greek, "arete") was the highest and only true good, and they placed a significant emphasis on living in accordance with virtue. Here are more details about the Stoic views on virtue:

Virtue as the Sole Good:

The Stoics held the view that virtue is the only true good and the sole source of human happiness and flourishing. They believed that possessing and cultivating virtue was sufficient for leading a fulfilled and meaningful life.
The Four Cardinal Virtues:

The Stoics identified four cardinal virtues, which they considered to be the chief components of virtue:
Wisdom (Sophia): This virtue was the ability to distinguish between what is truly good and what is merely apparent or deceptive.
Courage (Andreia): This virtue involved the ability to face adversity, challenges, and danger with resilience, calmness, and determination.
Justice (Dikaiosune): Stoic justice was characterized by a sense of fairness, equity, and the recognition of the rights and dignity of all individuals.
Temperance (Sophrosune): This virtue referred to self-control, moderation, and the avoidance of excess or extremes in desires and behaviors.

Unity of Virtues:
The Stoics believed in the unity of virtues, meaning that all virtues were interconnected and inseparable. They argued that one could not possess one virtue without possessing all virtues to some degree.
The Rational Nature of Virtue:
According to the Stoics, virtue was grounded in reason and rationality. They believed that the wise person, who possesses virtue, acts in accordance with reason and is guided by wisdom in all aspects of life.
Virtue as Teachable and Attainable:
The Stoics believed that virtue was a teachable and attainable quality. They held that individuals could cultivate virtue through the practice of moral and ethical principles, as well as through philosophical education and self-discipline.
Freedom and Autonomy:
Virtue, according to the Stoics, granted individuals a sense of inner freedom and autonomy. They taught that the virtuous person was not subject to external circumstances or emotions and could maintain inner tranquility and peace of mind.
Virtue as Its Own Reward:
The Stoics maintained that virtue was valuable in and of itself, regardless of external rewards or consequences. They believed that living a virtuous life was intrinsically fulfilling and brought a sense of inner contentment and well-being.
The Pursuit of Virtue and Eudaimonia:
The ultimate goal of the Stoic philosophy was to achieve eudaimonia, which is often translated as "flourishing" or "living in accordance with one's true nature." The Stoics argued that eudaimonia was attained through the cultivation of virtue.
The Impermanence of External Goods:
The Stoics emphasized that external goods such as wealth, fame, and physical pleasures were indifferent to virtue. While they were not inherently bad, the Stoics believed that these external goods were impermanent and did not contribute to the ultimate good of virtue.
The Stoic conception of virtue played a central role in their ethical philosophy, shaping their understanding of how individuals should live and what constitutes a truly good and fulfilling life. They saw virtue as the cornerstone of human excellence and the key to attaining eudaimonia.
Virtue as Wisdom and Rationality:
Augustine highlights that the Stoics equated virtue with wisdom and rationality. They believed that living in accordance with reason and moral principles was the key to achieving a state of eudaimonia, or flourishing.
n Stoicism, the virtue of wisdom (Sophia) is considered foundational and is closely linked with rationality. Here are more details about the Stoic view of virtue as wisdom and rationality:

Discerning What is Truly Good:

The Stoics believed that wisdom was the ability to discern what is truly good and valuable in life. It involved the capacity to differentiate between things that are morally and ethically significant (virtues) and those that are indifferent or morally neutral.
Reason as the Guiding Principle:

Wisdom, according to the Stoics, is grounded in reason. It involves using one's rational faculties to make sound judgments and decisions. The wise person is guided by reason rather than being swayed by emotions or external circumstances.
Living in Accordance with Nature:

Stoicism teaches that living in accordance with nature is a central aspect of wisdom. This means aligning one's actions and choices with the natural order of the universe, which is governed by rational principles. Acting in harmony with nature leads to a life of virtue and eudaimonia (flourishing).
Practical Wisdom (Phronesis):

Practical wisdom, or phronesis, is a specific form of wisdom emphasized by the Stoics. It involves the ability to make practical, morally sound decisions in everyday life. This includes understanding how to apply general moral principles to specific situations.
Recognizing the Transience of External Goods:

Wisdom entails recognizing that external goods such as wealth, fame, and physical pleasures are not inherently valuable in themselves. Instead, their true value depends on how they are used in relation to virtue. The wise person does not place excessive importance on these external factors.
Endurance in the Face of Adversity:
The Stoics believed that wisdom enables individuals to endure challenges, adversity, and difficulties with equanimity and composure. It allows one to maintain inner peace and tranquility even in the midst of difficult circumstances.
Freedom from Passions:
Wisdom is associated with freedom from passions (apatheia), which means freedom from excessive or irrational emotions. The wise person is not ruled by destructive emotions like anger, fear, or excessive desire, but exercises rational control over their emotional responses.
The Unity of Virtue and Wisdom:
The Stoics saw wisdom as inseparable from the other cardinal virtues (courage, justice, and temperance). They believed that true wisdom encompasses all aspects of virtuous living and that one cannot possess wisdom without also possessing the other virtues.
Continuous Learning and Growth:
Wisdom is not seen as a static or fixed quality, but as a dynamic process of continuous learning and growth. The wise person is committed to self-improvement, seeking to deepen their understanding of moral principles and refining their ability to apply them in various situations.
Alignment with the Divine Reason:
The Stoics believed that wisdom involves aligning one's own rational faculty with the cosmic Logos, which they viewed as the divine reason or governing principle of the universe. This alignment allows the wise person to live in harmony with the larger order of reality.
The virtue of wisdom, intertwined with rationality, was considered by the Stoics to be a fundamental aspect of virtuous living and a key to achieving eudaimonia, or true flourishing. It represented the capacity to make morally sound judgments and lead a life in accordance with the rational principles that govern the universe.
The Stoic Ideal of Apathy:
Augustine discusses the Stoic concept of apathy (apatheia), which referred to a state of emotional equanimity and freedom from passions. The Stoics believed that a virtuous person would be unaffected by external circumstances and would maintain inner tranquility.
In Stoicism, the ideal of apathy, also known as apatheia, refers to a state of emotional equanimity and freedom from excessive or irrational passions. Here are more details about the Stoic concept of apathy:

Emotional Equanimity:

Apathy in Stoicism does not mean complete emotional detachment or indifference in the modern sense. Instead, it signifies a state of calmness and inner tranquility in the face of external events and circumstances. The Stoics believed that maintaining emotional stability allowed for rational decision-making.
Freedom from Destructive Passions:

Apatheia involves freedom from destructive or irrational passions. These may include excessive anger, fear, grief, or desires that can cloud judgment and lead to impulsive or unwise actions. The Stoics taught that a wise person exercises rational control over their emotional responses.
Acceptance of What is Beyond Our Control:

Stoicism emphasizes the distinction between what is within our control (our thoughts, actions, and attitudes) and what is beyond our control (external events, other people's opinions, and circumstances). Apatheia encourages acceptance of things that are beyond our control, as resistance to them only leads to unnecessary suffering.
Resilience in the Face of Adversity:
Apathy enables individuals to face adversity, challenges, and hardships with resilience and fortitude. It empowers them to navigate difficulties without being overwhelmed by negative emotions. The Stoics believed that a person in a state of apathy can respond to adversity with clarity and wisdom.
Alignment with Reason:
Apatheia is closely connected with living in accordance with reason. The Stoics believed that by cultivating apathy, one can align their emotional responses with rational judgment. This means responding to situations in a way that is guided by wisdom and moral principles rather than being driven by uncontrolled emotions.
Focus on Inner Virtue:
Apatheia redirects focus away from external events and circumstances, which are often beyond our control, and towards the development of inner virtues such as wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. It encourages individuals to prioritize the cultivation of moral character over the pursuit of external goods.
Stoic Indifference:
Apatheia involves a certain level of indifference towards external outcomes. This does not mean complete apathy or lack of concern for the well-being of others, but rather a recognition that our true flourishing is not contingent on external circumstances.
Freedom from Turmoil and Disturbance:
The Stoics believed that apathy brings inner peace and freedom from inner turmoil. By not being overly attached to fleeting pleasures or distressed by hardships, individuals can experience a profound sense of tranquility and contentment.
Practical Application:
Apatheia is not a passive state, but an active and practical approach to life. It involves making deliberate choices and responses based on rational reflection and ethical principles, rather than being driven by impulsive or uncontrolled emotions.
The Pursuit of Eudaimonia:
Apatheia is considered a crucial component in the pursuit of eudaimonia, or flourishing. By achieving a state of apathy, individuals can live in accordance with their true nature and align themselves with the rational principles that govern the universe.
The Stoic ideal of apathy represents a state of inner tranquility and emotional balance that allows individuals to respond to life's challenges with wisdom and virtue. It is a key aspect of Stoic philosophy's emphasis on living a life of moral and rational excellence.
The Stoic Conception of the Cosmos:
Augustine explores the Stoic understanding of the cosmos as a rational and ordered system governed by a divine principle, often referred to as the Logos. The Stoics believed that living in harmony with the cosmic order was essential for attaining virtue and eudaimonia.
The Stoic conception of the cosmos is a fundamental aspect of their philosophy, shaping their understanding of the nature of reality and how individuals should live in accordance with it. Here are more details about the Stoic view of the cosmos:

Divine Order and Rationality:

The Stoics believed that the cosmos, which encompasses the entire universe, is characterized by a divine order and rationality. They viewed the cosmos as a perfectly ordered and harmonious system governed by a divine principle, often referred to as the Logos.
The Logos:

The Logos is a central concept in Stoicism. It can be translated as "reason" or "divine word." According to the Stoics, the Logos is an immanent and active principle that permeates the entire cosmos. It is the source of rationality, order, and purpose in the universe.
Immanence of the Divine:

The Stoics taught that the divine principle (the Logos) is immanent in the world, meaning that it is present and active within every aspect of the natural order. This immanence affirms a close connection between the divine and the physical world.
Determinism and Fate:
Stoicism posited a form of determinism, suggesting that everything that occurs in the cosmos is part of a predetermined and necessary plan. This deterministic view was reconciled with human free will, as the Stoics believed that individuals could choose how they responded to the events that unfolded.
Ethical Implications:
The Stoic conception of the cosmos had profound ethical implications. It led them to emphasize the importance of living in accordance with the natural order and the divine plan. This involved aligning one's actions and attitudes with the rational principles that govern the universe.
Acceptance of Fate:
Because of their belief in a predetermined cosmic order, the Stoics advocated for an attitude of acceptance towards the events and circumstances of life. They encouraged individuals to accept their fate and to focus on responding virtuously to whatever comes their way.
Cosmic Sympathy:
The Stoics believed in a kind of cosmic sympathy or interconnectedness. They saw all elements of the universe as part of a single, interrelated whole. This perspective encouraged a sense of kinship with all of humanity and the natural world.
The Role of Providence:

Providence, in Stoicism, refers to the benevolent guiding force of the universe. The Stoics believed that everything that occurs is ultimately for the best, as it is part of the cosmic plan designed by a benevolent and rational divine force.
Transcendence of Individual Concerns:

The Stoic view of the cosmos encouraged individuals to transcend their personal concerns and to align themselves with the broader, cosmic perspective. By recognizing their place within the grandeur of the universe, individuals could gain a sense of perspective and serenity.
A Source of Tranquility:

The Stoic understanding of the cosmos provided a source of tranquility and inner peace. Recognizing the rationality and order inherent in the universe allowed individuals to find solace in the knowledge that they were part of a larger, purposeful whole.
The Stoic conception of the cosmos provided a framework for understanding the nature of reality, human existence, and the ethical principles that should guide one's life. It emphasized the importance of living in harmony with the rational and divinely ordained order of the universe.
Critique of Stoic Ethics:
Augustine offers a critique of the Stoic ethical framework. He challenges the Stoic assertion that virtue alone is sufficient for a good and happy life, and argues that the pursuit of virtue is incomplete without a proper understanding of the ultimate end and purpose of human existence.
Augustine, while acknowledging the depth and influence of Stoic philosophy, offers several critiques of Stoic ethics in his work "City of God." Here are some of Augustine's criticisms of Stoic ethics:

Reliance on Human Effort Alone:

Augustine argues that Stoic ethics places an excessive emphasis on human effort and self-discipline as the means to attain virtue and happiness. He believes that relying solely on one's own willpower is insufficient for achieving the highest good.
Limitations of Human Reason:
Augustine contends that human reason, while valuable, is limited in its ability to comprehend the fullness of divine truth and to guide individuals toward the ultimate good. He asserts that divine revelation and grace are necessary to transcend the limitations of human reason.
Inadequacy of Virtue for Ultimate Happiness:

Augustine challenges the Stoic assertion that virtue alone is sufficient for attaining the highest good. He argues that even the most virtuous individuals may not achieve true happiness without a proper understanding of the ultimate end and purpose of human existence.
The Problem of Evil and Suffering:

Augustine grapples with the Stoic response to the problem of evil. He believes that Stoicism's emphasis on apathy and emotional detachment may not adequately address the profound suffering and injustice that exist in the world.
The Need for Divine Grace:
Augustine emphasizes the significance of divine grace in achieving true virtue and attaining the ultimate good. He teaches that it is through God's grace and guidance that individuals are able to transcend their natural inclinations and participate in a higher, divine order.
The Pursuit of God as the Ultimate End:
Augustine argues that the ultimate end and purpose of human existence is union with God, rather than the pursuit of virtue for its own sake. He believes that true fulfillment and happiness can only be found in communion with the divine.
The Role of Faith and Revelation:

Augustine asserts that faith and revelation play a crucial role in understanding the nature of the ultimate good and in discerning the path to union with God. He contends that divine revelation provides a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of the highest good.
The Importance of Love:
Augustine places a strong emphasis on the role of love, both love of God and love of neighbor, as central to achieving the highest good. He believes that love is the driving force that leads individuals toward union with God and fosters a deeper, more meaningful relationship with the divine.
The Distinction Between Earthly and Eternal Happiness:

Augustine distinguishes between earthly happiness, which he sees as transient and ultimately unsatisfying, and eternal happiness, which is found in the City of God. He argues that Stoic ethics may fall short in addressing the yearning for a lasting, eternal fulfillment.
Augustine's critiques of Stoic ethics are framed within his broader Christian perspective, which emphasizes the central role of divine grace, faith, and love in achieving the ultimate good. He acknowledges the value of virtue but believes that it must be grounded in a deeper understanding of God's providential plan and the eternal destiny of the soul.
Augustine's Theological Perspective:
Augustine brings his Christian theological perspective to bear on the Stoic discussion. He introduces the idea that true happiness and fulfillment can only be attained through union with God, rather than through human effort alone.

Augustine's theological perspective, as expounded in "City of God," is rooted in Christian doctrine and shaped by his understanding of God's nature, human existence, and the ultimate purpose of life. Here are some key aspects of Augustine's theological perspective:

The Sovereignty of God:

Augustine emphasizes the absolute sovereignty of God. He teaches that God is the supreme and all-powerful Creator of the universe, who governs all things according to His divine will and providence.
Divine Providence:

Augustine asserts that God's providence extends to every aspect of existence. He believes that God's loving care and guidance are present in both the course of human history and in the individual lives of human beings.
Original Sin and Human Depravity:

Augustine's theological perspective includes a strong emphasis on the doctrine of original sin. He teaches that all human beings inherit a fallen nature from Adam and are inherently sinful. This condition separates humanity from God and necessitates divine intervention for salvation.
The Necessity of Grace:

Augustine emphasizes the necessity of divine grace for salvation. He contends that fallen humanity is incapable of attaining redemption through its own efforts, and that it is only through God's unmerited favor and intervention that individuals can be reconciled with Him.
Faith and Revelation:

Augustine underscores the importance of faith as a means of apprehending divine truth. He believes that faith is a gift from God that enables individuals to grasp spiritual realities and to trust in the promises of God, even when they surpass human comprehension.
The Role of the Church:

Augustine sees the Church as a vital instrument of God's grace and a community of believers united in their pursuit of the City of God. He believes that the sacraments and the teaching of the Church are channels through which God's grace is communicated to the faithful.
The Priority of Love:

Augustine places a profound emphasis on love, particularly love of God and love of neighbor. He teaches that love is the driving force that leads individuals toward union with God and fosters a deeper, more meaningful relationship with the divine.
The Teleological View of History:

Augustine believes that human history has a purpose and a divine plan. He sees history as a narrative leading toward the ultimate realization of God's kingdom, culminating in the eternal City of God.
The Nature of the Soul and its Aspiration for God:

Augustine articulates a deep understanding of the human soul's innate longing for God. He teaches that the soul finds its ultimate fulfillment and happiness in union with God, and that this aspiration is a central aspect of human nature.
Eternal Destiny and the City of God:

Augustine's theological perspective culminates in the vision of the City of God, which represents the ultimate end and purpose of human existence. He envisions it as an eternal, heavenly city in which individuals experience perfect communion with God.
Augustine's theological perspective in "City of God" is deeply informed by his Christian faith and serves as a foundational work in Christian theology. It addresses fundamental questions about human existence, God's nature, and the ultimate destiny of the soul.
The Role of Divine Grace:
Augustine emphasizes the significance of divine grace in the Christian understanding of virtue and the good life. He teaches that it is through God's grace and guidance that individuals are able to attain true virtue and find their ultimate fulfillment in the City of God.
The role of divine grace is a central and foundational concept in Augustine's theology, especially as expounded in "City of God." Here are more details about Augustine's understanding of the role of divine grace:

Unmerited Favor:

Augustine defines divine grace as the unmerited and freely given favor of God. It is a gift bestowed by God on humanity out of His boundless love and mercy, rather than something earned or deserved by human effort.
Necessity of Grace for Salvation:
Augustine asserts that due to the fallen state of humanity as a result of original sin, individuals are incapable of achieving salvation or reconciling with God through their own merits or efforts. It is only through the intervention of divine grace that humans can be redeemed and brought into communion with God.
Prevenient Grace:

Augustine teaches the concept of prevenient grace, which is the idea that God's grace precedes and prepares the human heart for faith and conversion. It is a divine initiative that enables individuals to respond to God's call and invites them into a relationship with Him.
Grace and Human Free Will:

Augustine maintains that divine grace and human free will are not mutually exclusive. He believes that God's grace does not override or negate human agency, but rather empowers and enables individuals to choose the good and to respond to God's invitation to faith.
Grace as a Healing Balm:

Augustine likens divine grace to a healing balm that restores and transforms the wounded human soul. He teaches that grace works to heal the effects of sin, including spiritual blindness, moral weakness, and estrangement from God.
Grace in the Sacraments:

Augustine sees the sacraments of the Church, such as baptism and the Eucharist, as means through which God communicates His grace to believers. He believes that in the sacraments, God's grace is conveyed in a tangible and transformative way.
Grace and Justification:
Augustine emphasizes that justification, or being made right with God, is a result of divine grace. He teaches that it is God's grace that justifies and sanctifies believers, making them righteous in His sight.
Sustaining Grace:

Augustine acknowledges that divine grace is not a one-time event, but a continual and sustaining presence in the life of the believer. It provides the strength, guidance, and perseverance needed for the Christian journey, enabling individuals to grow in holiness and draw closer to God.
Grace and the City of God:
Augustine envisions the City of God as a community of individuals who have been recipients of God's grace. He sees this heavenly city as the culmination of God's redemptive work, where grace is fully realized and individuals enjoy perfect communion with God for all eternity.
The Source of True Freedom:
Augustine believes that true freedom is found in submission to divine grace. He argues that it is through grace that individuals are liberated from the bondage of sin and enabled to live in accordance with God's will.
For Augustine, divine grace is not only the means of salvation but also the source of spiritual transformation, sanctification, and ultimate union with God. It is a foundational concept in his theological framework and is intricately woven into his understanding of human redemption and the purpose of life.
The Contrast with the City of God:
Augustine draws a contrast between the Stoic pursuit of virtue and the Christian pursuit of union with God in the City of God. He argues that the Christian understanding of the highest good transcends the Stoic conception of virtue.
In Book 7, Augustine engages in a detailed and critical examination of Stoic philosophy, providing a Christian perspective on the nature of virtue and the ultimate purpose of human life. This analysis sets the stage for further exploration of other philosophical schools of thought in subsequent books of "City of God."
Augustine draws a sharp contrast between two distinct and opposing cities: the City of God (Civitas Dei) and the Earthly City (Civitas Terrena). Here are more details about the contrast between these two cities:

City of God (Civitas Dei):

Foundation and Origin:

The City of God is founded on the worship and love of God. It has its origins in the eternal and heavenly realm. It is not a physical city on earth, but a spiritual and transcendent reality.
Members and Citizenship:

The citizens of the City of God are those who have placed their faith in God and seek to live in accordance with His will. Their primary allegiance is to God and His kingdom.
Source of Authority:

The ultimate authority in the City of God is God Himself. Divine law and principles govern this city, and individuals seek to align their lives with the moral and spiritual values prescribed by God.
End and Purpose:

The ultimate end and purpose of the citizens of the City of God is the attainment of eternal happiness and union with God. Their highest good is found in communion with the divine.
Transcendent Values:

The values of the City of God are eternal, unchanging, and grounded in God's nature. Love, justice, mercy, and holiness are central virtues upheld by the citizens of this city.
Unity in Love:

Love is the unifying force in the City of God. Citizens are bound together by their shared love for God and for one another. This love is selfless and seeks the well-being of others.
Peace and Tranquility:

The City of God is characterized by a profound sense of peace and tranquility. Its citizens experience inner harmony and serenity, even in the midst of external trials and tribulations.
Hope and Faith:

The citizens of the City of God live in hope and faith, looking forward to the fulfillment of God's promises and the realization of His kingdom.
Earthly City (Civitas Terrena):

Foundation and Origin:

The Earthly City is founded on worldly pursuits, human ambitions, and the love of temporal goods. It is rooted in the transitory and fallen nature of the world.
Members and Citizenship:

The citizens of the Earthly City are those who prioritize earthly desires, self-interest, and the pursuit of worldly success. Their primary allegiance is to self-gratification and worldly gains.
Source of Authority:

The authority in the Earthly City is often secular and temporal in nature. It may be represented by political powers, earthly rulers, and human laws.
End and Purpose:

The ultimate end of the citizens of the Earthly City is often focused on temporal achievements, material wealth, and worldly pleasures. Their pursuit is limited to earthly happiness, which is ultimately transitory.
Changing and Ephemeral Values:

The values of the Earthly City are subject to change, influenced by human desires, societal trends, and cultural shifts. They lack the stability and permanence of divine values.
Conflict and Strife:

The Earthly City is often marked by conflict, competition, and discord. Individuals may vie for power, wealth, and prestige, leading to division and strife.
Anxiety and Discontent:
The citizens of the Earthly City may experience anxiety, restlessness, and a sense of discontent, as they seek to satisfy their desires in a world that is inherently imperfect and subject to change.
Temporal Pursuits:
The pursuits of the citizens of the Earthly City are focused on temporal gains, achievements, and pleasures. They may prioritize wealth, fame, and worldly success as the highest goods.
Augustine's contrast between the City of God and the Earthly City serves as a foundational framework for understanding the ultimate purposes of human life and the contrasting values that guide individuals in their journey towards fulfillment. It invites reflection on the nature of true happiness, the pursuit of virtue, and the eternal destiny of the soul.