(1) The Origin Of The Universe

Chapter 1: The Origin Of The Universe

Classical Principles of Motion

An object that is already at rest will tend to want to remain at rest unless something else exerts a force on it. An object that is already moving will tend to continue to move in a straight line at constant speed unless something else exerts a force on it. When something else exerts a force on an object, the object will start to accelerate. If an object has less mass, then it will accelerate more for the same amount of force. If an object has more mass, then it will accelerate less for the same amount of force. If part of a force is in the same direction as the object is traveling, then it will start to speed up. If part of a force is in the opposite direction as the object is traveling, then it will start to slow down. If part of a force is perpendicular to the direction the object is traveling, then the object will start to curve around the arc of a circle with that part of the force pointing along the radius toward the center of the circle. When two objects interact with each other they will exert the same amount of force on each other to push or pull each other in opposite directions with one exception. The exception is when two charged objects are moving perpendicular to each other; the magnetic force on the objects will be in perpendicular directions and not in opposite directions. However, for charged objects traveling as current around complete loops or circuits, this exception cancels itself out for the overall forces on the entire loops.

Gravity is caused by objects with mass and it causes objects to accelerate toward each other. The electric force is caused by objects with electric charge. A positively charged object and negatively charged object will exert a force on each other in opposite directions attracting toward each other. A positively charged object and a positively charged object will exert a force on each other in opposite directions repelling away from each other. A negatively charged object and a negatively charged object will exert a force on each other in opposite directions repelling away from each other.
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The magnetic force is caused by objects with electric charge that are moving compared to each other. When charged objects are spinning they will create a magnet with a magnetic field going out of its magnetic north pole that loops around and goes back into its magnetic south pole. A magnetic north pole and magnetic south pole exert a force on each other in opposite directions attracting toward each other. A magnetic north pole and magnetic north pole exert a force on each other in opposite direction repelling away from each other. A magnetic south pole and magnetic south pole will exert a force on each other in opposite directions repelling away from each other. The direction of current is defined to be the direction that positive charges are moving or the opposite direction that negative charges are moving. If charged objects were moving so that the current was coming toward you, it would create a magnetic field circulating in loops counter-clockwise around it. With your right hand you can point your thumb in the direction of current through a wire, point your fingers in the direction of an external magnetic field, then your palm would face the direction of the magnetic force on the wire from that external magnetic field. Two parallel wires with current traveling in the same direction will exert a force on each other in in opposite directions attracting toward each other. Two parallel wires with current traveling in opposite directions will exert a force on each other in opposite directions repelling away from each other. Two perpendicular wires will exert a force on each other in perpendicular directions attempting to torque the wires toward being parallel to each other. The strength of forces become weaker the farther apart the objects are from each other. For point particles and spherically symmetric distributions the strength of forces is inversely proportional to the square of the radial distance between the objects.

The surface area of a sphere is proportional to the square of the radius of the sphere. The strength of the electric force on a charged object from a spherically symmetric point charge is inversely proportional to the square of the radial distance between them. If they moved to be twice as far apart, then they would exert only a quarter of the amount of electric force on each other. If they moved to be triple as far apart, then they would only exert a ninth the amount of force on each other. If they were half as far apart, they would exert double the force on each other. If they were a third as far apart, they would exert nine times as much force on each other. Both charged objects will exert the same amount of force on each other, but in opposite directions.
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The surface area of the outside of cylinder is proportional to the radius of the cylinder (the cylinder has circular cross-sections). The circumference of a circle is also proportional to the radius of the circle. The strength of the magnetic force on long straight wires that are parallel to each other is inversely proportional to the radial distance between the wires. If the wires are double the distance apart, there will be half the magnetic force on each wire. If the wires are triple the distance apart, there will be a third of the magnetic force on each wire. If the wires are half the distance apart, then there will be double the magnetic force on each wire. If wires are a third of the distance apart, then there will be triple the magnetic force on each wire. Both the parallel wires will exert the same about of force on each other but in opposite directions.

These principles of motion only seem to work as an approximation. There are nuclear “forces” that keep the nuclear of atoms together. On the small scale of atoms, there are no longer objects that travel along paths of motion, but rather motion seems to travel along multiple paths in a mysterious manner that is unknown. Therefore, quantum physics uses probabilities to compensate for our inability to describe objects as moving along a single path. The universe also seems to have a maximum speed that objects can travel through space at, which is the speed of light in empty space. Relativistic physics makes adjustments to account for this maximum speed.

Overview of Relativistic Physics

The speed of light through empty space is always the same regardless of the speed of the object that emitted it, regardless of the speed of the object that reflects it, and regardless of the speed of the object that receives it. The speed of light is the maximum speed that matter can travel through space. All processes occur more slowly within an object that is traveling close to the speed of light through space because the light triggering any process must travel a further distance to complete the same process, which takes more time. Therefore, it is as if time slows down within objects traveling close to the speed of light through space since all of the processes take more time to occur. When time slows down in this manner, it is called “time dilation”.
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There are 1000 meters in a kilometer. A cube that has length, width, and height all is one meter would have a volume of one cubic meter, which is a kiloliter. A kiloliter is 1000 liters. A liter of water has a mass of a kilogram. A cube that length, width, height all is one centimeter would have a volume of one cubic centimeter, which is a milliliter. A milliliter of water has a mass of one gram. The following are small prefixes. 10^-1 is tenth, “deci”. 10^-2 is hundredth, “centi”. 10^-3 is thousandth, “milli”, 10^-6 is millionth, “micro”, 10^-9 is billionth, “nano”, 10^-12 is trillionth, “pico”.

Because we have two eyes that have a certain distance between them, we can judge how far away objects are based on the light reflecting off an object reaching each eye at a slightly different angle. This is called “depth perception”. The Earth may start at a certain position in its orbit and half a year later (6 months later) the Earth is at a different position in its orbit on the other side of the sun, with a certain distance between its current location and it previous location. In a similar way we can calculate how far away objects are from the Earth based on the light emitted from any object reaching the Earth at a slightly different angle when the Earth is at the two different locations. Determining how far objects are away from the Earth in this manner is called “triangulation”.

It is always important to also make corrections when the light has been bent by “refraction” and by “gravitational lensing”. The average velocity of light does slow down when it travels through a material rather than empty space. The index of refraction of a material is defined to be the average velocity of light through empty space divided by the average velocity of light through that material. Light can be bent or the direction the light is traveling can change when the light travels from empty space through a material, or from one material through another material, or from a material back into empty space. When light passes through a material and then returns to empty space, the average velocity of the light will always return back to traveling at the speed of light through empty space even though the direction that the light was traveling may have changed. When light changes direction when it passes from one material to another, it is called “refraction”.
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It takes a Newton of force to accelerate one kilogram of mass with an acceleration of one meter per second per second. It requires 9.8 Newtons of force, which is about 2.2 pounds of force, in order to hold up a kilogram of mass on the surface of the Earth. Objects with mass accelerate towards each other, which we call “Gravity”. Gravity does not cause objects to accelerate through space, but rather gravity causes the space itself to accelerate. An object’s weight is equal to the mass of the object times the acceleration of the space where the object is located. To prevent an object from accelerating into the center of the Earth, the ground needs to push back with a force equal to the object’s weight. The ground pushes back with a force equal to the object’s mass times an acceleration through space, where the acceleration through space is the same amount but opposite direction as the acceleration of the space itself. It is not the weight of the object but rather it is the force of the ground pushing back on the object that causes the compression in the object and the feeling of heaviness.

When an object remains in the same location on the surface of the Earth, it is actually accelerating through space. The space itself is accelerating toward the center of the Earth, but the object is accelerating through space in the opposite direction by the same amount in order to remain in the same location. When the ground pushes back more, there is more compression and an object feels heavier because it is accelerating more through space. When the ground pushes back less, there is less compression and the object feels lighter because it is accelerating less through space. When the ground does not push back at all, there is no compression and the object floats drifting with no heaviness because it is not accelerating through space, even if the space itself is accelerating. When an object is not accelerating through space (even if the space itself is accelerating), it gives the feeling of “free fall” or the inaccurate phrase “weightlessness”; the object still has weight, but it doesn’t have heaviness because the ground is not pushing back to cause the compression. Only when there are no other masses nearby to cause Gravity (an acceleration of space itself) will an object with mass have no weight.

An object has the same amount of mass regardless of where you move it. An object will have more weight when you move it closer to another object with a large mass. An object will feel heavier when the ground pushes back more on the object. Gravity is the acceleration of space itself caused by objects nearby with a large mass. Weight is the mass of an object times the acceleration of the space itself where the object is located. The feeling of heaviness is the amount of force the ground is pushing on the object, which is the mass of an object times its acceleration through space.
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Light will always travel at the same speed through empty space. However, Gravity can cause the space itself to accelerate. This acceleration of space itself will not change the speed of light through empty space, but it can change the direction the light is traveling. When light is moving in the same direction as the acceleration of the space itself where the light is located, the light will increase in frequency and its wavelength will be shortened. When light is moving in the opposite direction as the acceleration of the space itself where the light is located, the light will decrease in frequency and its wavelength will get longer. When light is moving at an angle to the direction of the acceleration of the space itself where the light is located, the direction of the light can change. Therefore, light can bend when it travels past an object with a large mass. This bending or changing of the direction of light due to Gravity is called “gravitational lensing”.

Light repeats itself in cycles as it travels through space. The frequency is how many cycles occur per unit of time. The wavelength is the distance the light travels before it repeats itself. Light has been grouped into categories based on how the light was emitted and its frequency and wavelength. The categories in order from the light with the smallest frequency and longest wavelength to the light with the largest frequency and shortest wavelength are the following: radio-wave, micro-wave, infrared-light, visible-light, ultraviolet-light, x-ray, gamma-ray. A black hole is a star that has an extremely large mass. Because a black hole has so much mass, the space itself around the black hole has an extremely large acceleration in the opposite direction the light is traveling. Even if gamma-rays are emitted from a black hole, they will become micro-waves or radio-waves with a small frequency and long wavelength when it finally gets away from the black hole star, if the light can get away from the black hole star. The light released would most likely bend back inward so that it cannot escape the black hole. Any light released from a black hole star would become micro-waves or radio-waves with a very small frequency and a very large wavelength. If light was released from black hole stars, it might have such a small frequency and such a long wavelength that none of our instruments are able to detect it.
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An object at rest in empty space can be thought of (quantum physics is actually much stranger than this) as containing light traveling around chaotic curved paths that keep the light trapped around the same location, its average center of mass. Each particle of light has more energy when it has a higher frequency. Each particle of light has less energy when it has a lower frequency. An object at rest has more mass when all the light has more total energy. An object at rest has less mass when all the light has less total energy. The momentum of light is determined by how much energy the light has traveling in a particular direction. An object at rest contains light particles with the same amount of energy traveling in opposite directions on average so that the average momentum of all the light particles cancels out to zero.

If an object is at rest in empty space where the space itself is accelerating, then the wavelength and frequency of the trapped light can change. The light traveling in the same direction as the acceleration of the space itself will increase in frequency and have a shortened wavelength. The light traveling in the opposite direction as the acceleration of the space will decrease in frequency and have a lengthened wavelength. Therefore, the light traveling in the same direction as the acceleration of the space itself will gain momentum and the light traveling in the opposite direction as the acceleration of the space itself will lose momentum. The total momentum of all the light will then be in the direction of the acceleration of the space itself. If an object is at rest in empty space where the space itself is accelerating, then the object will gain an overall momentum in the direction of the acceleration of the space itself.

An object moving through space can be thought of (quantum physics is actually much stranger than this) as containing light traveling around chaotic curved paths that keep the light trapped around a moving location, its average center of mass. The light traveling in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the object’s overall movement will need to travel a further distance at the same speed, so it will take a longer amount of time. Therefore, all the processes will take a longer amount of time to occur. It is as if time is slowing down because all the processes take a longer amount of time. Time seems to slow down when an object is traveling close to the speed of light, which is called “time dilation”.
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An object moving through space has light particles with the more of its energy traveling in the same direction as the direction of motion of the object and less of its energy traveling in the opposite direction as the direction of motion. When a particle of light has more energy, it has a shorter wavelength. When a particle of light has less energy, it has a longer wavelength. Energy behaves as if it causes the space around a particle of light to contract in the direction the energy is traveling. If energy causes space to contract in the direction it is traveling, then all objects will contract in their direction of motion since it has more energy traveling in that direction. The length of an object is predicted to get shorter in its direction of motion when it travels close to the speed of light, which is called “length contraction”.

Overview of Quantum Physics

Quantum physics deals with matter on the small scale of atoms. The true behavior of matter on the small scale of atoms is mysterious and unknown, so the best we can do in quantum physics is to deal with probabilities. We describe matter using a wave of probabilities for the possible locations of the particle. Matter always transfers its energy and momentum in packets as if it were made of distinct particles. However, the matter often travels along multiple paths and interferes with itself as if it were a wave. When only one path is open, the particle might be able to reach a particular destination. When two or more paths are open, matter can travel as a wave on all the paths and cancel itself in a particular location so that it will have zero probability of reaching that destination, which is called “destructive interference”. When two or more paths are open, matter can travel as a wave on all the paths and add together in another location so that it has a higher probability of reaching that other destination, which is called “constructive interference”. Waves travel in repeating cycles. When two waves overlap in alignment, this causes constructive interference. When two waves are out of alignment, this causes destructive interference. Therefore in quantum physics it is impossible to predict a definite outcome for a particle, but rather we can only predict the probability of the different possible outcome for that particle. The outcome of each individual particle seems to be random. The outcomes match the predicted probabilities when there are a large number of particles.
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Quantum physics can be used to calculate the probability that a particle will tunnel through an energy barrier even though the particle did not have enough energy to normally escape, which is called “quantum tunneling”. Quantum tunneling is responsible for radioactive decay. There are three different types of radioactive decay, which have been named alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha decay ejects high speed helium ions from the nucleus of an unstable atom. Beta-minus decay ejects high speed electrons out of the nucleus of an unstable atom. Beta-plus decay emits a positron from the nucleus of an atom. Gamma decay emits a high energy gamma ray of light from the nucleus of an unstable atom. The average amount of time for 50% of the sample to decay is called the half-life. Radioactive decay can be used to infer the age of an object if the original concentration of the radioactive substance is known.

All of the forms of stable matter that make up our galaxy seem to be made up of atoms composed of protons, electrons, and neutrons. The number of protons in an atom determines the chemical properties and name of the atom. Neutrinos and anti-neutrinos seem to also be prevalent freely moving through space but do not interact much with the atoms. Sometimes an anti-electron (positron) is also produced, but it quickly finds an electron to annihilate with. When an electron and positron collide, they annihilate to become gamma-rays of light. The different types of atoms have different energy levels that the electrons can occupy. A photon is a particle of light. An electron can jump to a higher energy level if it is struck by a photon that has the energy equal to the difference between the energy levels. When an electron drops back down to a lower energy level, it releases a photon of light with energy equal to the difference between the energy levels. The type of atom can be identified by the energy of the light it releases. Using light to identify the types of atoms is called “spectroscopy”.

When a moving object is emitting light, the light gets bunched together and has a shortened wavelength and higher frequency in the direction the object is moving, and the light gets spread out and has a longer wavelength and smaller frequency in the opposite direction the object is moving. When movement changes the frequency of a wave, this is called the Doppler Effect. When an object emitting light and the object receiving light are moving toward each other, the light will be detected with a higher frequency then what it was emitted with, which is called “blue shifted”. When an object emitting light and the object receiving light are moving away from each other, the light will be detected with a lower frequency than what it was emitted with, which is called “red shifted”. One way we can tell the universe is expanding is that the light spectrum received on Earth that was emitted from the stars in distant galaxy clusters becomes progressively “red shifted” the further the galaxy cluster is from Earth. The galaxy clusters seem to be accelerating away from each other.
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A neutron is composed of a proton, an electron, an anti-neutrino, plus some extra energy. The anti-neutrino and extra energy seem to act as kind of a lock that prevents the proton and electron from repelling away from each other within the neutron. When a neutron collides with a positron, it releases the proton, anti-neutrino, and gamma-rays of light. A neutron by itself is unstable and about every ten minutes, it has a 50% chance of decaying into a proton, an electron, and anti-neutrino. A neutron is only stable when it is in a stable atom. A neutron that is in an unstable atom can decay into a proton, high energy electron, and an anti-neutrino. An atom that is unstable because it has too many protons can have one of its protons decay into a neutron, positron, and a neutrino. The positron will eventually find an electron to annihilate with to create gamma-rays of light.

Every type of matter also has a form of anti-matter. Besides normal matter made up of protons, electrons, anti-neutrinos, and neutrons there is anti-matter made up of anti-protons, anti-electrons (positions), neutrinos, and anti-neutrons. Antimatter has the same amount of mass but the opposite electric charge as normal matter. When matter and anti-matter collide, they can become a bunch of different types of unstable particles depending on how the quarks annihilated. A proton is made of two up-quarks and a down-quark. A neutron is made of two down-quarks and an up-quark. An anti-proton is made of two anti-up-quarks and an anti-down quark. An anti-neutron is made of two anti-up-quarks and an anti-down quark.

When particles collide into each other close to the speed of light, the kinetic energy of the particles themselves can be used to create exotic matter, which is unstable and not commonly found in our universe. An electron can be excited to become a particle with the same charge but a lot more mass. A neutrino can fluctuate between three different states or types as it travels, which are the electron-type neutrino, muon-type neutrino, and tauon-type neutrino. An electron can be excited to become a muon and a tauon. A tauon has more mass than a muon, which as more mass than an electron, but they all have the same charge. A muon and tauon are unstable and can decay into exotic particles but will eventually decay into an electron, a neutrino, and an anti-neutrino.
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The exotic particles are classified as either baryons or mesons. Baryons are particles made of three quarks or anti-quarks. Mesons are particles made of one quark and one anti-quark. There are six different types of quarks, which are named “up”, “down”, “charm”, “strange”, “top”, and “bottom”. There are also the six corresponding types of anti-quarks. An electron and positron have the same charge. The electron has a negative charge and a positron has a positive charge. Quarks and antiquarks either have one-third or two-thirds the charge of an electron or the charge of the positron. There are three states of an electron, which are electron, muon, and tauon. There are also three states of an up-quark, which are up, charm, and top. There are also three states of a down quark, which are down, strange, and bottom. The up, charm, and top quark have two-thirds the charge of a positron. The down, strange, and bottom quarks each have one-third the charge of an electron. Since a proton is made of two up quarks and a down quark, a proton has the same amount of charge as a positron. Since a neutron is made of two down quarks and an up quark, a neutron has zero total charge. Quarks and antiquarks will only combine in ways that are zero, one, or two times the charge of an electron or positron. It is impossible for there to be a lone quark all by itself; the energy required to free a quark will then be used create more quarks.

Eventually in a galaxy the matter and antimatter will annihilate and the unstable particles will decay until they form atoms composed of either normal matter or antimatter depending on which was more plentiful to begin with. At the center of most galaxies is a supermassive black hole. Some galaxies might have a supermassive black hole made of antimatter and the rest of the galaxy made of normal matter. Some galaxies might have a supermassive black hole made of normal matter the rest of the galaxy made of antimatter. Some galaxies might be made of entirely normal matter. Some galaxies might be made of entirely anti-matter. We have looked at colliding galaxies to see if any of them annihilate each other, but there is no evidence that any of them are annihilating. The universe may have started off with more matter than anti-matter or the antimatter may be trapped in black holes. No human being really knows what happens inside a black hole; relativistic physics and quantum physics are logically inconsistent with each other and they logically contradict each other. These two branches of physics are both logically inconsistent with each other and not completely true, but they are useful because they can usually be used to predict results to a very good approximation as long as the right assumptions are used. No human being knows for sure what the right assumptions are to use for describing the inside of a black hole.
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Overview of the Universe

The following is not intended to be a logistical reference, but rather it is intended to be a general conceptual overview to give some perspective on the breadth of the universe. The visible universe was created about 13.8 billion years old. Our galaxy is about 13.2 billion years old. Our planet and solar system are about 4.5 billion years old. Our planet orbits the sun once every year. Our sun orbits the center of the galaxy about once about every 225 million years, which is called a “cosmic-year”. Since the creation of our solar system, our sun has orbited the center of the galaxy about 20 times. The average distance from the moon to the Earth is about 384,400 kilometers, which is about 238,855 miles, which is about 1.3 light-seconds. The average distance from the Earth to the sun is about 150 million kilometers, which is about 93 million miles, which is about 8.3 light-minutes. The diameter of the solar system out to Neptune is about 9 billion kilometers, which is about 5.6 billion miles, which is about 9.4 light-hours across. The radius of the solar system out to Neptune is about 30 times the distance between the Earth and the Sun, which is about 4.5 billion kilometers, which is about 2.8 billion miles, which is about 4.7 light-hours across. The diameter of the galaxy is about 100,000 light years across. The radius of the galaxy is about 500,000 light-years. The distance from our solar system to the center of the galaxy is about 25,000 light years. Our solar system is orbiting the galaxy in a middle orbit near its half radius.

The planets in our solar system in order of increasing radius are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune; it is very easy to remember the order of the last three because they make the acronym “SUN”. There is the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are rocky planets with a rocky surface. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are gas giants. There are icy comets that travel in highly elliptical (oval) orbits going around close to the sun and back out Beyond Neptune. Beyond Neptune there is also the Kuiper belt, which contains some dwarf planets including Pluto. Finally, the solar system is surrounded by a spherical Oort Cloud. The Kuiper belt extends out to between to about 55 times the distance between the Earth and the sun, which would be about 7.6 light-hours. The Oort Cloud contains more than a trillion icy comets and extends out to about 100,000 times the distance between the Earth and the sun, which is about 1.6 light-years; our solar system is surrounded by a firmament of icy water.
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The closest star-system to our solar system is the Alpha Centauri star-system. The Alpha Centauri star-system is made of three stars orbiting their center of mass, which is about 4.3 light years away from our solar system. The three stars are labeled Alpha-Centauri-A, Alpha Centauri-B, and Alpha Centauri-C (Proxima Centauri). Proxima Centauri is the closest star, which is 4.24 light years away from our solar system. Bernard’s Star is about 5.9 light-years away. Wolf-359 is about 7.8 light-years away. Sirius A and Sirius B are about 8.6 light-years away. Lalande-21185 is about 8.3 light-years away. Luyten-726-8A and Luyten-726-8B are about 8.7 light years away. Ross-154 is about 9.7 light-years away. Ross 249 is about 10.3 light-years away. Epsilon-Eridani is about 10.5 light-years away. Ross-128 is about 10.9 light-years away. EZ Aquarii is a triple star-stem about 11.3 light years away. 61-Cygni-A and 61-Cygni-B are about 11.4 light years away. Procyon A and Procyon B are about 11.4 light years away. Struve-2398A and Struve-2398B are about 11.5 light-years away. Groombridge-34A and Groombridge-34B are about 11.6 light years away. DX-Cancri is about 11.8 light-years away. Tau-Ceti is about 11.9 light-years away. GJ-1061 is about 12.0 light-years away. YZ-Ceti is about 12.1 light-years away. Luyten’s Star is about 12.4 light-years away. Teegarden’s Star is about 12.5 light-years away.

There are about 100 thousand million stars in our galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy. There are over about 54 galaxies in our local group surrounding our galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy. The diameter of this local group of galaxies is about 10 million light-years across. Many of the 54 galaxies are small dwarf galaxies. The Milky Way Galaxy and Andromeda Galaxy are both spiral galaxies and are the two most massive galaxies in our local group. The Andromeda Galaxy is about 2.5 million light-years from the Milky Way Galaxy. Some clusters have hundreds of galaxy in the same volume as our local cluster. One of the nearest clusters is the Virgo Cluster is about 55 million light-years from our local cluster. The Virgo Cluster contains more than about 1300 galaxies.

The light from the sun reaching Earth right now was actually released from the sun about 8.3 minutes ago. This means that when we look at the sun with a telescope, we are not seeing the sun as it is now but rather as it was 8.3 minutes ago. The light from the Alpha Centauri star system reaching Earth right now was actually released over 4.2 years ago. This means that when we look at the Alpha Centauri star system with a telescope, we are not seeing it was it is now but rather as it was over 4.2 year ago. The light reaching Earth right now from the Andromeda Galaxy was actually about 2.5 million years ago, which means that when we look at the Andromeda Galaxy with a telescope, we are not seeing it as it is now but rather as it was about 2.5 million years ago. The light reaching Earth right now from the Virgo Cluster was actually released about 55 million years ago. This means that when we look at the Virgo Cluster with a telescope, we are not seeing it as it is now but rather as it was about 55 million years ago. The farther away we look with a telescope, the further back in time we are looking. We can see an entire history of the visible universe. From our perspective, we are at the center of the visible universe. There is a spherical wall of microwave background radiation about 13.8 billion light-years in all directions, which is purported to have been released from the “big bang”. The first stars formed about 200 million years after the “big bang”, which are seen to be about 13.6 billion light-years away. The rest is cosmic history.
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There are estimated to be over about a hundred billion (10^11) galaxies in the visible universe. There are estimated to be over about 70 thousand million million stars (10^16) in the visible universe. There are estimated to be between 10^78 and 10^82 atoms in the visible universe. There are less than a googol (10^100) atoms in the visible universe. The radius of the visible universe is about 13.8 billion light years. The volume of the visible universe is four-thirds time Pi (3.14159…) times the radius of the universe cubed, which is about 10^31 cubic light-years. The average density of galaxies in the visible universe is about 10^-20 galaxies per cubic light year. The average density of stars in the visible universe is about 10^-15 stars per cubic light-year. The maximum average density of atoms of the visible universe is about 10^82 atoms divided by 10^31 cubic light-years, which is 10^51 atoms per cubic light-year.

The distance from the equator to the North Pole along the surface of the Earth is defined to be 10,000 kilometers. The speed of light through empty space is approximately 300,000 kilometers per second, which is approximately 186,000 miles per second. The following are large prefixes. 10^1 is ten, “deca”. 10^2 is a hundred, “hecto”. 10^3 is thousand, “kilo”. 10^6 is million, “mega”. 10^9 is billion, “giga”. 10^12 is trillion, “tera”. A light-year is the distance that light travels through empty space in one year, which is about 9.47 trillion kilometers, which is about 5.87 trillion miles.

A day is defined to be the amount of time the Earth rotates about its axis. There are 24 hours in a day. There are 60 minutes in an hour. There are 60 seconds in a minute. An hour is 3600 seconds. A day is 24 hours, which is 1440 minutes, which is 87,400 seconds. A year is defined to be the amount of time for the Earth to orbit around the Sun. There are approximately 365.25 days in a year. Every four years an extra day is added onto the end of the month of February to account for the “.25”, which is called “leap year” and it always occurs on the same year as the presidential elections for the United States of America. A non-leap year is 365 days, which is 8760 hours, which is 525,600 minutes, which is 31,536,000 seconds. A leap year is 366 days, which is 8784 hours, which is 527,040 minutes, which is 31,622,400 seconds. A year is about 365.25 days, which is 8766 hours, which is 525,960 minutes, which is 31,557,600 seconds. Our moon orbits the Earth every 27.324 days, which is about 655.77 hours, which is about 39346 minutes. Our moon orbits the earth about 13.4 times every year.
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