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"Jew" redirects here. For the word, see Jew (word). For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). Jews יְהוּדִים‬‎ (Yehudim) The Star of David, a common symbol of the Jewish people Total population 15.1 million Enlarged population (includes full or partial Jewish ancestry): 19.9 million[note 1][1] (2021, est.) Regions with significant populations Israel (including occupied territories) 6,905,000–7,401,000[1] United States 6,000,000–11,500,000[1] France 440,000–600,000[1][2] Canada 398,000–550,000[1][2] United Kingdom 312,000–370,000[1][2] Argentina 175,000–310,000[1] Russia 150,000–460,000[1] Germany 118,000–225,000[1] Australia 118,000–145,000[1] Brazil 92,000–150,000[1] South Africa 52,000–75,000[1] Hungary 47,000–100,000[1] Ukraine 43,000–140,000[1] Mexico 40,000–50,000[1] Netherlands 30,000–53,000[1] Belgium 29,000–40,000[1] Italy 27,000–41,000[1] Switzerland 18,000–25,000[1] Uruguay 16,000–24,000[1] Chile 16,000–24,000[1] Sweden 15,000–25,000[1] Turkey 15,000–21,000[1] Spain 12,900–19,000[1] Austria 10,300–17,000[1] Panama 10,000–12,000[1] Languages Predominantly spoken:[3] Modern HebrewEnglishRussianFrenchSpanish Historical: YiddishLadinoJudeo-Arabicothers Sacred: Biblical HebrewBiblical AramaicTalmudic Aramaic Religion Majority: Judaism Minority: Irreligion,[4] Christianity Related ethnic groups Samaritans,[5][6][7] Arabs,[6][8][9][10] Assyrians,[11] Others שָׁלוֹם This article contains Hebrew text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hebrew letters. Part of a series on Jews and Judaism EtymologyWho is a Jew? Religion Texts History Communities Population Denominations Culture Languages Politics CategoryPortal vte The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים‎, ISO 259-2: Yehudim, Israeli pronunciation: [jehuˈdim]) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group[12] and nation[13] originating from the Israelites of the ancient Near East,[14] and whose traditional religion is Judaism.[15][16] Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly interrelated,[17][18] as Judaism is an ethnic religion,[19][20] although not all ethnic Jews practice it.[21][22] Despite this, religious Jews regard individuals who have formally converted to Judaism as part of the community.[21][23] The Israelites emerged from within the Canaanite population to establish the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel and Judah.[24] Judaism emerged from the Israelite religion of Yahwism by the late 6th century BCE,[25] with a theology considered by religious Jews to be the expression of a covenant with God established with the Israelites, their ancestors.[26] The Babylonian captivity of Judahites following their kingdom's destruction,[27] the movement of Jewish groups around the Mediterranean in the Hellenistic period, and subsequent periods of conflict and violent dispersion, such as the Jewish–Roman wars, gave rise to the Jewish diaspora. The Jewish diaspora is a wide dispersion of Jewish communities across the world that have maintained their sense of Jewish history, identity and culture.[28] In the following millennia, Jewish diaspora communities coalesced into three major ethnic subdivisions according to where their ancestors settled: the Ashkenazim (Western Europe), the Sephardim (Iberian Peninsula), and the Mizrahim (Middle East and North Africa).[29][30] While these three major divisions account for most of the world's Jews, there are other smaller Jewish groups outside of the three.[31] Prior to World War II, the global Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million,[32] representing around 0.7% of the world's population at that time. During World War II, approximately 6 million Jews throughout Europe were systematically murdered by Nazi Germany in a genocide known as the Holocaust.[33][34] Since then, the population has slowly risen again, and as of 2021, was estimated to be at 15.2 million by the demographer Sergio Della Pergola[1] or less than 0.2% of the total world population in 2012.[35][note 2] Today, over 85% of Jews live in Israel or the United States. Israel, whose population is 73.9% Jewish, is the only country where Jews comprise more than 2.5% of the population.[1] Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to the development and growth of human progress in many fields, both historically and in modern times, including in science and technology,[37] philosophy,[38] ethics,[39] literature,[37] governance,[37] business,[37] art, music, comedy, theatre,[40] cinema, architecture,[37] food, medicine,[41][42] and religion. Jews wrote the Bible,[43][44] founded Christianity,[45] and had an indirect but profound influence on Islam.[46] In these ways, Jews have also played a significant role in the development of Western culture.[47][48] Name and etymology Main article: Jew (word) For a more comprehensive list, see List of Jewish ethnonyms. The term "Jew" is derived from the Hebrew word יְהוּדִי Yehudi, with the plural יְהוּדִים Yehudim.[49] Endonyms in other Jewish languages include the Ladino ג׳ודיו Djudio (plural ג׳ודיוס, Djudios) and the Yiddish ייִד Yid (plural ייִדן Yidn). Originally, in ancient times, Yehudi (Jew)[50] was used to describe the inhabitants of the Israelite kingdom of Judah.[51] It is also used to distinguish their descendants from the gentiles and the Samaritans.[52] According to the Hebrew Bible, these inhabitants predominately descend from the tribe of Judah from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob.[53] Together the tribe of Judah and the tribe of Benjamin made up the Kingdom of Judah.[54] Though Genesis 29:35 and 49:8 connect "Judah" with the verb yada, meaning "praise", scholars generally agree that "Judah" most likely derives from the name of a Levantine geographic region dominated by gorges and ravines.[55][56] In ancient times, Jewish people as a whole were called Hebrews or Israelites until the Babylonian Exile. After the Exile, the term Yehudi (Jew) was used for all followers of Judaism because the survivors of the Exile (who were the former residents of the Kingdom of Judah) were the only Israelites that had kept their distinct identity as the ten tribes from the northern Kingdom of Israel had been scattered and assimilated into other populations.[57] The gradual ethnonymic shift from "Israelites" to "Jews", regardless of their descent from Judah, although not contained in the Torah, is made explicit in the Book of Esther (4th century BCE) of the Tanakh.[58] Some modern scholars disagree with the conflation, based on the works of Josephus, Philo and Apostle Paul.[59] The English word "Jew" is a derivation of Middle English Gyw, Iewe. The latter was loaned from the Old French giu, which itself evolved from the earlier juieu, which in turn derived from judieu/iudieu which through elision had dropped the letter "d" from the Medieval Latin Iudaeus, which, like the New Testament Greek term Ioudaios, meant both "Jew" and "Judean" / "of Judea".[60] The Greek term was a loan from Aramaic *yahūdāy, corresponding to Hebrew יְהוּדִי Yehudi.[53] Some scholars prefer translating Ioudaios as "Judean" in the Bible since it is more precise, denotes the community's origins and prevents readers from engaging in antisemitic eisegesis.[61][62] Others disagree, believing that it erases the Jewish identity of Biblical characters such as Jesus.[52] Daniel R. Schwartz distinguishes "Judean" and "Jew". Here, "Judean" refers to the inhabitants of Judea, which encompassed southern Palestine. Meanwhile, "Jew" refers to the descendants of Israelites that adhere to Judaism. Converts are included in the definition. [63] But Shaye J.D. Cohen argues that "Judean" should include believers of the Judean God and allies of the Judean state.[64] Troy W. Martin similarly argues that biblical Jewishness is not dependent on ancestry but instead, is based on adherence to 'covenantal circumcision' (Genesis 17:9–14).[65] The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ yahūdī (sg.), al-yahūd (pl.), in Arabic, "Jude" in German, "judeu" in Portuguese, "Juif" (m.)/"Juive" (f.) in French, "jøde" in Danish and Norwegian, "judío/a" in Spanish, "jood" in Dutch, "żyd" in Polish etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), in Persian ("Ebri/Ebrani" (Persian: عبری/عبرانی)) and Russian (Еврей, Yevrey).[66] The German word "Jude" is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], the corresponding adjective "jüdisch" [ˈjyːdɪʃ] (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".[67] According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition (2000), It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.[68] Identity Main articles: Who is a Jew? and Jewish identity Map of Canaan Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation,[69][70][71][72][73][74] an ethnicity,[12] a religion, and a culture,[75][76][77] making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.[78][better source needed] Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.[79] Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. These definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE. Interpretations by Jewish sages of sections of the Tanakh – such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, which forbade intermarriage between their Israelite ancestors and seven non-Israelite nations: "for that [i.e. giving your daughters to their sons or taking their daughters for your sons,] would turn away your children from following me, to serve other gods" [24][failed verification] – are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and gentiles. Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[80][81] A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.[82] Another argument is that the rabbis changed the law of patrilineal descent to matrilineal descent due to the widespread rape of Jewish women by Roman soldiers.[83] Since the anti-religious Haskalah movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[84] According to historian Shaye J. D. Cohen, the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined patrilineally in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in Mishnaic times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures (Kil'ayim). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a horse and a donkey, and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.[85] Second, the Tannaim may have been influenced by Roman law, which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, offspring would follow the mother.[85] Rabbi Rivon Krygier follows a similar reasoning, arguing that Jewish descent had formerly passed through the patrilineal descent and the law of matrilineal descent had its roots in the Roman legal system.[82] Origins Further information: Canaan, Israelites, Yahwism, Origins of Judaism, and History of ancient Israel and Judah Egyptian depiction of the visit of Western Asiatics in colorful garments, labeled as Aamu. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan, and dated to c. 1900 BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as Abraham and Joseph.[86][87][88][89] Depiction of King Jehu, tenth king of the northern Kingdom of Israel, on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 841–840 BCE.[90] This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".[91] The prehistory and ethnogenesis of the Jews are closely intertwined with archaeology, biology, historical textual records, mythology, and religious literature. The ethnic stock to which Jews originally trace their ancestry was a confederation of Iron Age Semitic-speaking tribes known as the Israelites that inhabited a part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods.[92] Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite Kingdom of Judah.[93][94][95][96][97][98] Gary A. Rendsburg links the early Canaanite nomadic pastoralists confederation to the Shasu known to the Egyptians around the 15th century BCE.[99] According to the Hebrew Bible narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the Biblical patriarchs such as Abraham, his son Isaac, Isaac's son Jacob, and the Biblical matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, Leah, and Rachel, who lived in Canaan. The Twelve Tribes are described as descending from the twelve sons of Jacob. Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacob's son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, after which the Israelites conquered Canaan under Moses' successor Joshua, went through the period of the Biblical judges after the death of Joshua, then through the mediation of Samuel became subject to a king, Saul, who was succeeded by David and then Solomon, after whom the United Monarchy ended and was split into a separate Kingdom of Israel and a Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Judah is described as comprising the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, partially Levi, and later adding remnants of other tribes who migrated there from the northern Kingdom of Israel.[100][101][102] In the extra-biblical record, the Israelites become visible as a people between 1200 and 1000 BCE.[103] There is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the Merneptah Stele, which dates to about 1200 BCE,[104][105] and in the Mesha stele from 840 BCE. It is debated whether a period like that of the Biblical judges occurred[106][107][108][109][110] and if there ever was a United Monarchy.[111][112][113][114] There is further disagreement about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power. Historians agree that a Kingdom of Israel existed by c. 900 BCE,[112]: 169–95 [113][114] there is a consensus that a Kingdom of Judah existed by c. 700 BCE at least,[115] and recent excavations in Khirbet Qeiyafa have provided strong evidence for dating the Kingdom of Judah to the 10th century BCE.[116] In 587 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II, King of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, besieged Jerusalem, destroyed the First Temple and deported parts of the Judahite population.[117] Scholars disagree regarding the extent to which the Bible should be accepted as a historical source for early Israelite history. Rendsburg states that there are two approximately equal groups of scholars who debate the historicity of the biblical narrative, the minimalists who largely reject it, and the maximalists who largely accept it, with the minimalists being the more vocal of the two.[118] Some of the leading minimalists reframe the biblical account as constituting the Israelites' inspiring national myth narrative, suggesting that according to the modern archaeological and historical account, the Israelites and their culture did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion of Yahwism centered on Yahweh, one of the gods of the Canaanite pantheon. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group, setting them apart from other Canaanites.[119][120][121] According to Dever, modern archaeologists have largely discarded the search for evidence of the biblical narrative surrounding the patriarchs and the exodus.[122] According to the maximalist position, the modern archaeological record independently points to a narrative which largely agrees with the biblical account. This narrative provides a testimony of the Israelites as a nomadic people known to the Egyptians as belonging to the Shasu. Over time these nomads left the desert and settled on the central mountain range of the land of Canaan, in simple semi-nomadic settlements in which pig bones are notably absent. This population gradually shifted from a tribal lifestyle to a monarchy. While the archaeological record of the ninth century BCE provides evidence for two monarchies, one in the south under a dynasty founded by a figure named David with its capital in Jerusalem, and one in the north under a dynasty founded by a figure named Omri with its capital in Samaria. It also points to an early monarchic period in which these regions shared material culture and religion, suggesting a common origin. Archaeological finds also provide evidence for the later cooperation of these two kingdoms in their coalition against Aram, and for their destructions by the Assyrians and later by the Babylonians.[123] Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the Fertile Crescent.[124][125][126] The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin.[127] Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language.[128] History Main article: Jewish history For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Jewish history. Tribes of Israel The Tribes of Israel Other tribes Related topics vte Israel and Judah Further information: History of ancient Israel and Judah The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele, which dates to around 1200 BCE. The majority of scholars agree that this text refers to the Israelites, a group that inhabited the central highlands of Canaan, where archaeological evidence shows that hundreds of small settlements were constructed between the 12th and 10th centuries BCE.[129][130] The Israelites differentiated themselves from neighboring peoples through various distinct characteristics including religious practices, prohibition on intermarriage, and an emphasis on genealogy and family history.[131][132][132] In the 10th century BCE, two neighboring Israelite kingdoms—the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah—emerged. Since their inception, they shared ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious characteristics despite a complicated relationship. Israel, with its capital mostly in Samaria, was larger and wealthier, and soon developed into a regional power.[133] In contrast, Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem, was less prosperous and covered a smaller, mostly mountainous territory. However, while in Israel the royal succession was often decided by a military coup d'état, resulting in several dynasty changes, political stability in Judah was much greater, as it was ruled by the House of David for the whole four centuries of its existence.[134] Around 720 BCE, Kingdom of Israel was destroyed when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which came to dominate the ancient Near East.[100] Under the Assyrian resettlement policy, a significant portion of the northern Israelite population was exiled to Mesopotamia and replaced by immigrants from the same region.[135] During the same period, and throughout the 7th century BCE, the Kingdom of Judah, now under Assyrian vassalage, experienced a period of prosperity and witnessed a significant population growth.[136] This prosperity continued until the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib devastated the region of Judah in response to a rebellion in the area, ultimately halting at Jerusalem.[137] Later in the same century, the Assyrians were defeated by the rising Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Judah became its vassal. In 587 BCE, following a revolt in Judah, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II besieged and destroyed Jerusalem and the First Temple, putting an end to the kingdom. The majority of Jerusalem's residents, including the kingdom's elite, were exiled to Babylon.[138][139] Second Temple period Further information: Second Temple period and Jewish–Roman wars According to the Book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE,[140] the year after he captured Babylon.[141] The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple circa 521–516 BCE.[140] As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (Yehud Medinata),[142] with a smaller territory[143] and a reduced population.[112] Judea was under control of the Achaemenids until the fall of their empire in c. 333 BCE to Alexander the Great. After several centuries under foreign imperial rule, the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire resulted in an independent Hasmonean kingdom, under which the Jews once again enjoyed political independence for a period spanning from 110 to 63 BCE.[144] Under Hasmonean rule the boundaries of their kingdom were expanded to include not only the land of the historical kingdom of Judah, but also the Galilee and Transjordan.[145] In the beginning of this process the Idumeans, who had infiltrated southern Judea after the destruction of the First Temple, were converted en masse.[146][147] In 63 BCE, Judea was conquered by the Romans. From 37 BCE to 6 CE, the Romans allowed the Jews to maintain some degree of independence by installing the Herodian dynasty as vassal kings. However, Judea eventually came directly under Roman control and was incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Judaea.[148][149] The Jewish–Roman wars, a series of unsuccessful revolts against Roman rule during the first and second centuries CE, had significant and disastrous consequences for the Jewish population of Judaea.[150][151] The First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 CE) culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The severely reduced Jewish population of Judaea was denied any kind of political self-government.[152] A few generations later, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) erupted, and its brutal suppression by the Romans led to the depopulation of Judea. Following the revolt, Jews were forbidden from residing in the vicinity of Jerusalem, and the Jewish demographic center in Judaea shifted to Galilee.[153][154][155] Similar upheavals affected the Jewish communities of the empire's south-eastern provinces, when a significant uprising known as the Kitos War (115–117 CE) resulted in the complete disappearance of the extremely influential Jewish community of Egypt and Alexandria.[152] A Roman coin inscribed Ivdaea Capta, or "captive Judea" (71 CE), representing Judea as a seated mourning woman (right), and a Jewish captive with hands tied (left) The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE brought profound changes to Judaism. With the Temple's central place in Jewish worship gone, religious practices shifted towards prayer, Torah study (including Oral Torah), and communal gatherings in synagogues. Judaism also lost much of its sectarian nature.[156]: 69  Two of the three main sects that flourished during the late Second Temple period, namely the Sadducees and Essenes, eventually disappeared, while Pharisaic beliefs became the foundational, liturgical, and ritualistic basis of Rabbinic Judaism, which emerged as the prevailing form of Judaism since late antiquity.[157] Babylon and Rome Further information: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire and Talmudic academies in Babylonia The Jewish diaspora existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.[158][152] In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in Joachin's ration tablets, listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by Nebuchadnezzar II, and further evidence are the Al-Yahudu tablets, dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the First Temple,[117] though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.[159] In Egypt, the documents from Elephantine reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to Josephus the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by Alexander the Great.[160] By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia ("Babylonia" in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, Cyrene, and, beginning in the middle of the first century BCE, in the city of Rome.[161][152] Later, in the first centuries CE, as a result of the Jewish-Roman Wars, a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the Roman Empire as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. After the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Jewish population in Judaea, now significantly reduced in size, made efforts to recover from the revolt's devastating effects, but never fully regained its previous strength.[162][163] In the second to fourth centuries CE, the region of Galilee emerged as the new center of Jewish life in Syria Palaestina, experiencing a cultural and demographic flourishing. It was in this period that two central rabbinic texts, the Mishnah and the Jerusalem Talmud, were composed.[164] However, as the Roman Empire was replaced by the Christianized Byzantine Empire under Constantine, Jews came to be persecuted by the church and the authorities, and many immigrated to communities in the diaspora. In the fourth century CE, Jews are believed to have lost their position as the majority in Syria Palaestina.[165][162] The long-established Jewish community of Mesopotamia, which had been living under Parthian and later Sasanian rule, beyond the confines of the Roman Empire, became an important center of Jewish study as Judea's Jewish population declined.[165][162] Under the political leadership of the exilarch, who was regarded as a royal heir of the House of David, this community had an autonomous status and served as a place of refuge for the Jews of Syria Palaestina. A number of significant Talmudic academies, such as the Nehardea, Pumbedita, and Sura academies, were established in Mesopotamia, and many important Amoraim were active there. The Babylonian Talmud, a centerpiece of Jewish religious law, was compiled in Babylonia in the 3rd to 6th centuries.[166] Middle Ages Further information: History of the Jews in Europe, History of European Jews in the Middle Ages, Mizrahi Jews, and Sephardi Jews Jewish diaspora communities are generally described to have coalesced into three major ethnic subdivisions according to where their ancestors settled: the Ashkenazim (initially in the Rhineland and France), the Sephardim (initially in the Iberian Peninsula), and the Mizrahim (Middle East and North Africa).[167] Romaniote Jews, Tunisian Jews, Yemenite Jews, Egyptian Jews, Ethiopian Jews, Bukharan Jews, Mountain Jews, and other groups also predated the arrival of the Sephardic diaspora.[168] Despite experiencing repeated waves of persecution, Ashkenazi Jews in Western Europe worked in a variety of fields, making an impact on their communities' economy and societies. In Francia, for example, figures like Isaac Judaeus and Armentarius occupied prominent social and economic positions. However, Jews were frequently the subjects of discriminatory laws, segregation, blood libels and pogroms, which culminated in events like the Rhineland Massacres (1066) and the expulsion of Jews from England (1290). As a result, Ashkenazi Jews were gradually pushed eastwards to Poland, Lithuania and Russia.[169] During the same period, Jewish communities in the Middle East thrived under Islamic rule, especially in cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Damascus. In Babylonia, from the 7th to 11th centuries the Pumbedita and Sura academies led the Arab and to an extant the entire Jewish world. The deans and students of said academies defined the Geonic period in Jewish history.[170] Following this period were the Rishonim who lived from the 11th to 15th centuries. Like their European counterparts, Jews in the Middle East and North Africa also faced periods of persecution and discriminatory policies, with the Almohad Caliphate in North Africa and Iberia issuing forced conversion decrees, causing Jews such as Maimonides to seek safety in other regions. Initially, under Visigoth rule, Jews in the Iberian Peninsula faced persecutions, but their circumstances changed dramatically under Islamic rule. During this period, they thrived in a golden age, marked by significant intellectual and cultural contributions in fields such as philosophy, medicine, and literature by figures such as Samuel ibn Naghrillah, Judah Halevi and Solomon ibn Gabirol. However, in the 12th to 15th centuries, the Iberian Peninsula witnessed a rise in antisemitism, leading to persecutions, anti-Jewish laws, massacres and forced conversions (peaking in 1391), and the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition that same year. After the completion of the Reconquista and the issuance of the Alhambra Decree by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, the Jews of Spain were forced to choose: convert to Christianity or be expelled. As a result, around 200,000 Jews were expelled from Spain, seeking refuge in places such as the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, Italy, the Netherlands and India. A similar fate awaited the Jews of Portugal a few years later. Some Jews chose to remain, and pretended to practice Catholicism. These Jews would form the members of Crypto-Judaism.[171] Modern period Further information: Zionism, The Holocaust, and History of Israel (1948–present) In the 19th century, when Jews in Western Europe were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the Pale of Settlement faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread pogroms. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a national revival movement, aiming to re-establish a Jewish polity in the Land of Israel, an endeavor to restore the Jewish people back to their ancestral homeland in order to stop the exoduses and persecutions that have plagued their history. This led to waves of Jewish migration to Ottoman-controlled Palestine. Theodor Herzl, who is considered the father of political Zionism,[172] offered his vision of a future Jewish state in his 1896 book Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State); a year later, he presided over the First Zionist Congress.[173] The antisemitism that inflicted Jewish communities in Europe also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.[174] The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were Albert Einstein and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Many Nobel Prize winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.[175] Map of the Jewish diaspora: Israel + 1,000,000 + 100,000 + 10,000 + 1,000 When Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, the situation for Jews deteriorated rapidly. Many Jews fled from Europe to Mandatory Palestine, the United States, and the Soviet Union as a result of racial anti-Semitic laws, economic difficulties, and the fear of an impending war. World War II started in 1939, and by 1941, Hitler occupied almost all of Europe. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the Final Solution—an extensive, organized effort with an unprecedented scope intended to annihilate the Jewish people—began, and resulted in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in gas chambers in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the Auschwitz camp complex alone. The Holocaust is the name given to this genocide, in which six million Jews were systematically murdered. Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948, upon the termination of the mandate, David Ben-Gurion declared the creation of the State of Israel, a Jewish and democratic state in the Land of Israel. Immediately afterwards, all neighboring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed IDF resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of Aliyah from all over the world. Culture Main article: Jewish culture Religion Main article: Judaism See also: Jewish atheism and Jewish secularism Part of a series on Judaism Star of David Ten Commandments Menorah Movements Philosophy Texts Law Holy cities/places Important figures Religious roles Culture and education Ritual objects Prayers Major holidays Other religions Related topics Judaism portal vte The Jewish people and the religion of Judaism are strongly interrelated. Converts to Judaism typically have a status within the Jewish ethnos equal to those born into it.[176] However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many born Jews.[177] Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and it is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or would-be or current spouses of Jews.[178] The Hebrew Bible, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the Abrahamic religions, which are now practiced by 54 percent of the world. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"[179] which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world,[180] in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah),[181] in Islamic Spain and Portugal,[182] in North Africa and the Middle East,[182] India,[183] China,[184] or the contemporary United States[185] and Israel,[186] cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities.[187] Languages Main article: Jewish languages Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.[188] By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek.[189] Others, such as in the Jewish communities of Asoristan, known to Jews as Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic, the languages of the Babylonian Talmud. Dialects of these same languages were also used by the Jews of Syria Palaestina at that time.[citation needed] For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judaeo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Judaeo-Georgian, Judaeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Berber, Krymchak, Judaeo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.[3] Tombstone of the Maharal in the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague. The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew. For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath.[190] Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times.[188] Modern Hebrew is designated as the "State language" of Israel.[191] Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and English has emerged as the lingua franca of the Jewish diaspora.[192][193][194][195][196] Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and Jewish languages like Yiddish and Ladino were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars. The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and Russian. Some Romance languages, particularly French and Spanish, are also widely used.[3] Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,[197] but it is far less used today following the Holocaust and the adoption of Modern Hebrew by the Zionist movement and the State of Israel. In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in Quebec, the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language.[198][199][200] Similarly, South African Jews adopted English rather than Afrikaans.[201] Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies,[202][203] Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of Russian Jews, but these policies have also affected neighboring communities.[204] Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of Post-Soviet states, such as Ukraine[205][206][207][208] and Uzbekistan,[209][better source needed] as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in Azerbaijan,[210][211] Georgia,[212] and Tajikistan.[213][214] Although communities in North Africa today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in Algeria,[215] Morocco,[210] and the city of Tunis,[216][217] while most North Africans continue to use Arabic or Berber as their mother tongue.[citation needed] Leadership Main article: Jewish leadership There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.[218] Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.[219] Today, many countries have a Chief Rabbi who serves as a representative of that country's Jewry. Although many Hasidic Jews follow a certain hereditary Hasidic dynasty, there is no one commonly accepted leader of all Hasidic Jews. Many Jews believe that the Messiah will act a unifying leader for Jews and the entire world.[220] Theories on ancient Jewish national identity Bible manuscript in Hebrew, 14th century. Hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the Jewish national identity in antiquity. A number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of Jewish national identity in antiquity. One of them is David Goodblatt,[221] who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period. In his view, the Bible, the parabiblical literature and the Jewish national history provide the base for a Jewish collective identity. Although many of the ancient Jews were illiterate (as were their neighbors), their national narrative was reinforced through public readings. The Hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity. Although it was not widely spoken after the 5th century BCE, Goodblatt states:[222][223] the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a Jewish national identity. Even if one knew no Hebrew or was illiterate, one could recognize that a group of signs was in Hebrew script. … It was the language of the Israelite ancestors, the national literature, and the national religion. As such it was inseparable from the national identity. Indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity. Anthony D. Smith, an historical sociologist considered one of the founders of the interdisciplinary field of nationalism studies, wrote that the Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to the ideal type of the nation [...] than perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world." He adds that this observation "must make us wary of pronouncing too readily against the possibility of the nation, and even a form of religious nationalism, before the onset of modernity."[224] Agreeing with Smith, Goodblatt suggests omitting the qualifier "religious" from Smith's definition of ancient Jewish nationalism, noting that, according to Smith, a religious component in national memories and culture is common even in the modern era.[225] This view is echoed by political scientist Tom Garvin, who writes that "something strangely like modern nationalism is documented for many peoples in medieval times and in classical times as well," citing the ancient Jews as one of several "obvious examples", alongside the classical Greeks and the Gaulish and British Celts.[226] It is believed that Jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule (Persians, Greeks, Romans) Jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation. This claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures, the Hebrew language, the Temple and priesthood, and other traditions of their ancestors.[227] Demographics Further information: Jewish population by country Ethnic divisions Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions Ashkenazi Jews of late-19th-century Eastern Europe portrayed in Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur (1878), by Maurycy Gottlieb Sephardi Jewish couple from Sarajevo in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900. Yemenite Jew blows shofar, 1947 Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.[228] Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim. Ashkenazim are so named in reference to their geographical origins (their ancestors’ culture coalesced in the Rhineland, an area historically referred to by Jews as Ashkenaz). Similarly, Sephardim (Sefarad meaning "Spain" in Hebrew) are named in reference their origins in Iberia. The diverse groups of Jews of the Middle East and North Africa are often collectively referred to as Sephardim together with Sephardim proper for liturgical reasons having to do with their prayer rites. A common term for many of these non-Spanish Jews who are sometimes still broadly grouped as Sephardim is Mizrahim (lit. “easterners" in Hebrew). Nevertheless, Mizrahis and Sepharadim are usually ethnically distinct.[229] Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.[230] The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Moroccan Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews, Afghan Jews, and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.[230] Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70 percent of Jews worldwide (and up to 90 percent prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, the immigration of Jews from Algeria (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim.[230] Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.[231] Genetic studies Main article: Genetic studies on Jews Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.[232] In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany, and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.[233][234] Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA, are generally more heterogeneous.[235] Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.[236] In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40 percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."[235] Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."[11][237][238] A study showed that 7% of Ashkenazi Jews have the haplogroup G2c, which is mainly found in Pashtuns and on lower scales all major Jewish groups, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese.[239][240] Studies of autosomal DNA, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common.[241] For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World".[242] North African, Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly Southern European, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations. Behar et al. have remarked on a close relationship between Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians.[242][243] A 2001 study found that Jews were more closely related to groups of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors, whose genetic signature was found in geographic patterns reflective of Islamic conquests.[233][244] The studies also show that Sephardic Bnei Anusim (descendants of the "anusim" who were forced to convert to Catholicism), which comprise up to 19.8 percent of the population of today's Iberia (Spain and Portugal) and at least 10 percent of the population of Ibero-America (Hispanic America and Brazil), have Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The Bene Israel and Cochin Jews of India, Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and a portion of the Lemba people of Southern Africa, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, have also been thought to have some more remote ancient Jewish ancestry.[245][242][246][238] Views on the Lemba have changed and genetic Y-DNA analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population but have been unable to narrow this down further.[247][248] Population centers For a more comprehensive list, see Jewish population by city. New York City is home to 960,000 Jews, making it the largest Jewish community outside of Israel. Although historically, Jews have been found all over the world, in the decades since World War II and the establishment of Israel, they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries.[249][250] In 2021, Israel and the United States together accounted for over 85 percent of the global Jewish population, with approximately 45.3% and 39.6% of the world's Jews, respectively.[1] More than half (51.2%) of world Jewry resides in just ten metropolitan areas. As of 2021, these ten areas were Tel Aviv, New York, Jerusalem, Haifa, Los Angeles, Miami, Philadelphia, Paris, Washington, and Chicago. The Tel Aviv metro area has the highest percent of Jews among the total population (94.8%), followed by Jerusalem (72.3%), Haifa (73.1%), and Beersheba (60.4%), the balance mostly being Israeli Arabs. Outside Israel, the highest percent of Jews in a metropolitan area was in New York (10.8%), followed by Miami (8.7%), Philadelphia (6.8%), San Francisco (5.1%), Washington (4.7%), Los Angeles (4.7%), Toronto (4.5%), and Baltimore (4.1%).[1] As of 2010, there were nearly 14 million Jews around the world, roughly 0.2% of the world's population at the time.[251] According to the 2007 estimates of The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute, the world's Jewish population is 13.2 million.[252] This statistic incorporates both practicing Jews affiliated with synagogues and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5 million unaffiliated and secular Jews.[citation needed] According to Sergio Della Pergola, a demographer of the Jewish population, in 2021 there were about 6.8 million Jews in Israel, 6 million in the United States, and 2.3 million in the rest of the world.[1] Israel Main article: Israeli Jews Jewish people in Jerusalem, Israel Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.[253] Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on 14 May 1948.[254] Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset,[255] as of 2016, 14 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's Supreme Court judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.[256] Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.[257] Currently, Jews account for 75.4 percent of the Israeli population, or 6 million people.[258][259] The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors in the aftermath of the Holocaust and Jews fleeing Arab lands.[260] Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[261][262] Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union.[263] This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and North America.[264] A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.[265] Diaspora (outside Israel) Main article: Jewish diaspora In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.[266] A menorah dominating the main square in Birobidzhan. An estimated 70,000 Jews live in Siberia.[267] The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Imperial Russia (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present-day Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and eastern Poland), the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.[268] More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 5.2 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada (315,000), Argentina (180,000–300,000), and Brazil (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America).[269] According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, about 470,000 people of Jewish heritage live in Latin-America and the Caribbean.[251] Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.[270] The Jewish Zionist Youth Movement in Tallinn, Estonia on 1 September 1933 Western Europe's largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in France, home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants).[271] The United Kingdom has a Jewish community of 292,000. In Eastern Europe, the exact figures are difficult to establish. The number of Jews in Russia varies widely according to whether a source uses census data (which requires a person to choose a single nationality among choices that include "Russian" and "Jewish") or eligibility for immigration to Israel (which requires that a person have one or more Jewish grandparents). According to the latter criteria, the heads of the Russian Jewish community assert that up to 1.5 million Russians are eligible for aliyah.[272][273] In Germany, the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population,[274] despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former Soviet Union since the fall of the Berlin Wall.[275] Thousands of Israelis also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.[276] Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the Arab world (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled Maghreb region, 15 to 20 percent in the Kingdom of Iraq, approximately 10 percent in the Kingdom of Egypt and approximately 7 percent in the Kingdom of Yemen. A further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries[277] and around 30,000 in Iran and Turkey. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial aliyah came from Yemen and Syria.[278] The exodus from Arab and Muslim countries took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in Iraq, Yemen and Libya, with up to 90 percent of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. Lebanon was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of Iranian Jews peaked in the 1980s when around 80 percent of Iranian Jews left the country.[citation needed] Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia (112,500) and South Africa (70,000).[32] There is also a 6,800-strong community in New Zealand.[279] Demographic changes Main article: Historical Jewish population comparisons Assimilation Main articles: Jewish assimilation and Interfaith marriage in Judaism Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity.[280] Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,[280] with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely.[281] The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.[282] Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50 percent,[283] in the United Kingdom, around 53 percent; in France; around 30 percent,[284] and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10 percent.[285] In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice.[286] The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.[citation needed] War and persecution Further information: Persecution of Jews, Antisemitism, and Jewish military history The Roman Emperor Nero sends Vespasian with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE. The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.[287][288] According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[289] Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and in a series of expulsions from the Kingdom of England, Germany, and France. Then there occurred the largest expulsion of all, when Spain and Portugal, after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), expelled both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the rulin

The Dead Sea Scrolls, also called the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period. They were discovered over a period of 10 years, between 1946 and 1956, at the Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE,[1] the Dead Sea Scrolls include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, along with extra-biblical and deuterocanonical manuscripts from late Second Temple Judaism. At the same time, they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism.[2] Almost all of the 15,000 scrolls and scroll fragments are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, located in the city of Jerusalem. The Israeli government's custody of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on territorial, legal, and humanitarian grounds—they were mostly discovered following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank and were acquired by Israel after Jordan lost the 1967 Arab–Israeli War[3]—whilst Israel's claims are primarily based on historical and religious grounds, given their significance in Jewish history and in the heritage of Judaism.[4] Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved and near-intact manuscripts have survived—fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.[1] Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts (discovered in 1946/1947 and in 1956) from 11 caves,[5] which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert, in the West Bank.[6] The caves are located about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) west of the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, whence they derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect known as the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.[7][8] Most of the manuscripts are written in Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text; in different regional dialects, including Nabataean) and a few in Greek.[9] Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada) and Arabic (from Khirbet al-Mird).[10] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.[11] Though scholarly consensus dates the Dead Sea Scrolls to between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE,[12] there are manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites that are dated to as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE.[12] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus, a ruler of the Hasmonean Kingdom (in office 135–104 BCE), and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the paleography and radiocarbon dating of the scrolls.[13] Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups: About 40% are copies of texts from Hebrew scriptures. Approximately another 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, like the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular sect or groups within greater Judaism, like the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.[14] Discovery See also: Qumran Caves at Qumran Qumran cave 4, where ninety per cent of the scrolls were found The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in a series of 12 caves around the site originally known as Ein Feshkha near the Dead Sea in the West Bank (then controlled by Jordan) between 1946 and 1956 by Bedouin shepherds and a team of archaeologists.[15] The practice of storing worn-out sacred manuscripts in earthenware vessels buried in the earth or within caves is related to the ancient Jewish custom of genizah. Initial discovery (1946–1947) The initial discovery by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa took place between November 1946 and February 1947.[16][17] The shepherds discovered seven scrolls (see § The Caves and their scrolls and fragments) housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site. John C. Trever reconstructed the story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin. Edh-Dhib's cousin noticed the caves, but edh-Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one (the cave now called Cave 1). He retrieved a handful of scrolls, which Trever identifies as the Isaiah Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule, and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process.[18] The Bedouin kept the scrolls hanging on a tent pole while they contemplated what they should do with them, periodically showing the scrolls to their people. At some point during this time, the Community Rule was split in two. The Bedouin first took the scrolls to a dealer named Ibrahim 'Ijha in Bethlehem. 'Ijha returned them, saying they were worthless, after being warned that they might have been stolen from a synagogue. Undaunted, the Bedouin went to a nearby market, where a Syrian Christian offered to buy them. A sheikh joined their conversation and suggested that they take the scrolls to Khalil Eskander Shahin, "Kando", a cobbler and part-time antiques dealer. The Bedouin and the dealers returned to the site, leaving one scroll with Kando and selling three others to a dealer for seven Jordanian pounds (approximately $28, or $382 in 2023 dollars).[18][19] The original scrolls continued to change hands after the Bedouin left them in the possession of a third party until a sale could be arranged. (see Ownership.) In 1947 the original seven scrolls caught the attention of John C. Trever of the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR), who compared the script in the scrolls to that of the Nash Papyrus, the oldest biblical manuscript then known, and found similarities between them. In March the 1948 Arab–Israeli War prompted the move of some of the scrolls to Beirut, Lebanon for safekeeping. On 11 April 1948, Millar Burrows, head of the ASOR, announced the discovery of the scrolls in a general press release. Search for the Qumran caves (1948–1949) Early in September 1948, Metropolitan bishop Mar Samuel brought some additional scroll fragments that he had acquired to professor Ovid R. Sellers, the new director of ASOR. By the end of 1948, nearly two years after the discovery of the scrolls, scholars had yet to locate the original cave where the fragments had been found. With unrest in the country at that time, no large-scale search could be safely undertaken. Sellers tried to persuade the Syrians to assist in the search for the cave, but he was unable to pay their price. In early 1949, the government of Jordan granted permission to the Arab Legion to search the area in which the original Qumran cave was believed to exist. Consequently, Cave 1 was rediscovered on 28 January 1949 by Belgian United Nations observer captain Phillipe Lippens and Arab Legion captain Akkash el-Zebn.[20] Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries (1949–1951) A view of the Dead Sea from a cave at Qumran in which some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered The rediscovery of what became known as Cave 1 at Qumran prompted the initial excavation of the site from 15 February to 5 March 1949 by the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, led by Gerald Lankester Harding and Roland de Vaux.[21]: 9  The Cave 1 site yielded discoveries of additional Dead Sea Scroll fragments, linen cloth, jars, and other artefacts.[22] Excavations of Qumran and new cave discoveries (1951–1956, 2017, 2021) In November 1951, Roland de Vaux and his team from the ASOR began a full excavation of Qumran.[23] By February 1952, the Bedouin had discovered 30 fragments in what was to be designated Cave 2.[21] The discovery of a second cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew.[22][23] The following month, on 14 March 1952, the ASOR team discovered a third cave with fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll.[21] Between September and December 1952, the fragments and scrolls of Caves 4, 5, and 6 were discovered by the ASOR teams.[23] With the monetary value of the scrolls rising as their historical significance was made more public, the Bedouins and the ASOR archaeologists accelerated their search for the scrolls separately in the same general area of Qumran, which was more than one kilometre in length. Between 1953 and 1956, de Vaux led four more archaeological expeditions in the area to uncover scrolls and artefacts.[22] Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded the last fragments to be found in the vicinity of Qumran.[24] Caves 4–10 are clustered in an area lying in relative proximity 150 m (160 yd) from Khirbet Qumran, while caves 1, 2, 3 and 11 are located 1 mile (1–2 kilometres) north, with Cave 3 the most remote.[25][26] In February 2017, Hebrew University archaeologists announced the discovery of a new 12th cave.[27] There was one blank parchment found in a jar, but broken and empty scroll jars and pickaxes suggest that the cave was looted in the 1950s.[28] In March 2021, Israeli archaeologists announced the discovery of dozens of fragments bearing biblical text, written in Greek, from the books of Zechariah and Nahum. This group of findings is believed to have been hidden in a cave between 132 and 136 CE during the Bar Kokhba revolt.[29] However, a 10,500-year-old basket made of woven reeds was also discovered in the Muraba'at caves in the Nahal Darga Reserve. Other discoveries included the remains of a child wrapped in cloth dated to around 6,000 years ago, and a cache of coins from the days of the Bar Kochba revolt.[30] In 2021, more scrolls were discovered by Israeli authorities in a different cave near the Dead Sea called the Cave of Horror.[31][32] The Caves and their scrolls and fragments For a full list of the scrolls from each individual cave, see List of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa) contains almost the whole Book of Isaiah. The 972 manuscripts found at Qumran were found primarily in two separate formats: as scrolls and as fragments of previous scrolls and texts. In the fourth cave the fragments were torn into up to 15,000 pieces. These small fragments created somewhat of a problem for scholars. G.L. Harding, director of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, began working on piecing the fragments together but did not finish this before his death in 1979.[33] Cave 1 Wadi Qumran Cave 1 was discovered for the first time in 1946. The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947.[34][17] The shepherds discovered seven scrolls housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process.[18] The original seven Dead Sea Scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), a second copy of Isaiah (1QIsab), the Community Rule Scroll (1QS), the Pesher on Habakkuk (1QpHab), the War Scroll (1QM), the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH), and the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen).[35] One of the pottery jars containing the scrolls from Cave 1 is now kept in the British Museum.[36] Cave 2 Wadi Qumran Cave 2 was discovered in February 1952 and soon the Bedouin people discovered 30 fragments in it.[21] The cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts of Dead Sea Scrolls, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew.[37][38] Cave 3 Wadi Qumran Cave 3 was discovered on 14 March 1952 by the ASOR team. The cave initially yielded fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll.[21]: 10–11  Caves 4a and 4b The Damascus Document Scroll, 4Q271Df, found in Cave 4 4Q7, a fragment of the book of Genesis found in Cave 4 Wadi Qumran Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated from 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik.[39][21]: 10–11  Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labelled as 4Q. Cave 4 is the most famous of Qumran caves both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran caves, producing ninety per cent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot. Cave 5 Wadi Qumran Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 5 produced approximately 25 manuscripts.[21] Cave 6 Wadi Qumran Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 6 contained fragments of about 31 manuscripts.[21] Cave 7 Dead Sea Scroll fragments 7Q4, 7Q5, and 7Q8 from Cave 7 in Qumran, written on papyrus Wadi Qumran Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents, including 7Q2 (the "Letter of Jeremiah" = Baruch 6), 7Q5 (which became the subject of much speculation in later decades), and a Greek copy of a scroll of Enoch.[40][41][42] Cave 7 also produced several inscribed potsherds and jars.[43][44][45]: 104, 109  Cave 8 Wadi Qumran Cave 8, along with caves 7 and 9, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, cave 8 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957. Cave 8 produced five fragments: Genesis (8QGen), Psalms (8QPs), a tefillin fragment (8QPhyl), a mezuzah (8QMez), and a hymn (8QHymn).[46] Cave 8 also produced several tefillin cases, a box of leather objects, tons of lamps, jars, and the sole of a leather shoe.[43][44][45] Cave 9 Wadi Qumran Cave 9, along with caves 7 and 8, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, Cave 9 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957. There was only one manuscript fragment found in Cave 9. Cave 10 In Qumran Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with writing on them, along with an unknown symbol on a grey stone slab. Cave 11 A view of part of the Temple Scroll that was found in Qumran Cave 11 Wadi Qumran Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls, some of which were quite lengthy. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet (8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by scholar Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such, but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing.[47] Also in Cave 11, an eschatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13) was found. Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees, and a proto-Masoteric text of the Torah scroll (only a fragment of the Book of Leviticus surviving), known as the Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll. According to former chief editor of the DSS editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave 11, that have not yet been made available for scholars. Among them is a complete Aramaic manuscript of the Book of Enoch·.[48] Cave 12 Cave 12 was discovered in February 2017 on cliffs west of Qumran, near the north-western shore of the Dead Sea.[27] Archaeological examination found pickaxes and empty broken scroll jars, indicating that the cave had been discovered and looted in the 1950s. One of the joint Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Liberty University of Virginia project's lead researchers, Oren Gutfeld, stated, "Although at the end of the day no scroll was found, and instead we 'only' found a piece of parchment rolled up in a jug that was being processed for writing, the findings indicate beyond any doubt that the cave contained scrolls that were stolen."[28] Fragments with unknown provenance Some fragments of scrolls have neither significant archaeological provenance nor records that reveal in which designated Qumran cave area they were found. They are believed to have come from Wadi Qumran caves, but are just as likely to have come from other archaeological sites in the Judaean Desert area.[49] These fragments have therefore been designated to the temporary "X" series. Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description XQ1-3 "Tefillin from Qumran" Deuteronomy 5:1–6:3; 10:12–11:12.[49] First published in 1969; Phylacteries XQ4 "Tefillin from Qumran" Phylacteries XQ5a Jubilees 7:4–5 XQ5b Hymn XQ6 Offering Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic. XQ7 Unidentified fragment Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction. XQpapEn Book of Enoch 9:1 One small fragment written in Hebrew. = XQ8 Gallery Dead Sea Scroll 175, complete, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 175, complete, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, complete, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, complete, the Jordan Museum in Amman The War Scroll, found in Qumran Cave 1. The War Scroll, found in Qumran Cave 1. A portion of the second discovered copy of the Isaiah Scroll, 1QIsab. A portion of the second discovered copy of the Isaiah Scroll, 1QIsab. Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1. The Jordan Museum, Amman Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1. The Jordan Museum, Amman Dead Sea Scroll, Pesher Isaiah, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman Dead Sea Scroll, Pesher Isaiah, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman Dead Sea Scrolls at the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scrolls at the Jordan Museum in Amman Strips of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll at the Jordan Museum, from Qumran Cave 3, 1st century CE Strips of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll at the Jordan Museum, from Qumran Cave 3, 1st century CE Strip 11 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Strip 11 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Strip 15 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Strip 15 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Strip 13 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Strip 13 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Strips 1 and 2 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Strips 1 and 2 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4, at the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4, at the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll, Pesher Isaiah, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll, Pesher Isaiah, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Detail, Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Detail, Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, the Jordan Museum in Amman Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, the Jordan Museum in Amman Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, the Jordan Museum in Amman Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, at the Jordan Museum in Amman Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, at the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll fragment 5/6HEV PS found in the Cave of Letters at Nahal Hever Dead Sea Scroll fragment 5/6HEV PS found in the Cave of Letters at Nahal Hever Origin There has been much debate about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The dominant theory remains that the scrolls were produced by the Essenes, a sect of Jews living at nearby Qumran, but this theory has come to be challenged by several modern scholars.[50] Qumran–Essene theory Main article: Qumran-Essene hypothesis The view among scholars, almost universally held until the 1990s, is the "Qumran–Essene" hypothesis originally posited by Roland Guérin de Vaux[51] and Józef Tadeusz Milik,[52] though independently both Eliezer Sukenik and Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery connected scrolls with the Essenes well before any excavations at Qumran.[53] The Qumran–Essene theory holds that the scrolls were written by the Essenes, or by another Jewish sectarian group, residing at Khirbet Qumran. They composed the scrolls and ultimately hid them in the nearby caves during the Jewish Revolt sometime between 66 and 68 CE. The site of Qumran was destroyed and the scrolls never recovered. A number of arguments are used to support this theory. There are striking similarities between the description of an initiation ceremony of new members in the Community Rule and descriptions of the Essene initiation ceremony mentioned in the works of Flavius Josephus, a Jewish-Roman historian of the Second Temple period. Josephus mentions the Essenes as sharing property among the members of the community, as does the Community Rule. During the excavation of Khirbet Qumran, two inkwells and plastered elements thought to be tables were found, offering evidence that some form of writing was done there. More inkwells were discovered nearby. De Vaux called this area the "scriptorium" based upon this discovery. Several Jewish ritual baths (Hebrew: מקוה, miqvah) were discovered at Qumran, offering evidence of an observant Jewish presence at the site. Pliny the Elder (a geographer writing after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE) describes a group of Essenes living in a desert community on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea near the ruined town of 'Ein Gedi. Qumran–Sectarian theory Qumran–Sectarian theories are variations on the Qumran–Essene theory. The main point of departure from the Qumran–Essene theory is hesitation to link the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically with the Essenes. Most proponents of the Qumran–Sectarian theory understand a group of Jews living in or near Qumran to be responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls, but do not necessarily conclude that the sectarians are Essenes. A specific variation on the Qumran–Sectarian theory emerged in the 1990s that has gained much recent popularity is the work of Lawrence H. Schiffman, who proposes that the community was led by a group of Zadokite priests (Sadducees).[54] The most important document in support of this view is the "Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah" (4QMMT), which cites purity laws (such as the transfer of impurities) identical to those attributed in rabbinic writings to the Sadducees. 4QMMT also reproduces a festival calendar that follows Sadducee principles for the dating of certain festival days. Christian origin theory Spanish Jesuit José O'Callaghan Martínez argued in the 1960s that one fragment (7Q5) preserves a portion of text from the New Testament Gospel of Mark 6:52–53.[55] This theory was scrutinized in the year 2000 by paleographic analysis of the particular fragment. However, this faced some contention, and O'Callaghan's theory remains an area of great dispute. Later analyses in 2004 and 2018 lent credence to O'Callaghan's original assertion.[citation needed] Robert Eisenman has advanced the theory that some scrolls describe the early Christian community. Eisenman also argued that the careers of James the Just and Paul the Apostle correspond to events recorded in some of these documents.[56] Jerusalem origin theory Some scholars have argued that the scrolls were the product of Jews living in Jerusalem, who hid the scrolls in the caves near Qumran while fleeing from the Romans during the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE.[57] Karl Heinrich Rengstorf first proposed in the 1960s that the Dead Sea Scrolls originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.[58] Later, Norman Golb suggested that the scrolls were the product of multiple libraries in Jerusalem, and not necessarily the Jerusalem Temple library.[59][60] Proponents of the Jerusalem origin theory point to the diversity of thought and handwriting among the scrolls as evidence against a Qumran origin of the scrolls. Several archaeologists have also accepted an origin of the scrolls other than Qumran, including Yizhar Hirschfeld[61] and more recently Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg,[62] who all understand the remains of Qumran to be those of a Hasmonean fort that was reused during later periods. Physical characteristics Fragments 1 and 2 of '7Q6' from Cave 7 are written on papyrus. Radiocarbon dating Main article: Carbon dating the Dead Sea Scrolls Parchment from a number of the Dead Sea Scrolls has been carbon dated. The initial test performed in 1950 was on a piece of linen from one of the caves. This test gave an indicative dating of 33 CE plus or minus 200 years, eliminating early hypotheses relating the scrolls to the medieval period.[63] Since then two large series of tests have been performed on the scrolls themselves. The results were summarized by VanderKam and Flint, who said the tests give "strong reason for thinking that most of the Qumran manuscripts belong to the last two centuries BCE and the first century CE."[19]: 32  Paleographic dating Analysis of letter forms, or palaeography, was applied to the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls by a variety of scholars in the field. Major linguistic analysis by Cross and Avigad dates fragments from 225 BCE to 50 CE.[64] These dates were determined by examining the size, variability, and style of the text.[65] The same fragments were later analysed using radiocarbon dating and were dated to an estimated range of 385 BCE to 82 CE with a 68% accuracy rate.[64] Ink and parchment The scrolls were analysed using a cyclotron at the University of California, Davis, where it was found that all black ink was carbon black.[66] The red ink on the scrolls was found to be made with cinnabar (HgS, mercury sulfide).[67] There are only four uses of this red ink in the entire collection of Dead Sea Scroll fragments.[67] The black inks found on the scrolls are mostly made of carbon soot from olive oil lamps.[68] Honey, oil, vinegar, and water were often added to the mixture to thin the ink to a proper consistency for writing.[68] Galls were sometimes added to the ink to make it more resilient.[68] In order to apply the ink to the scrolls, its writers used reed pens.[69] The Dead Sea Scrolls were written on parchment made of processed animal hide known as vellum (approximately 85.5–90.5% of the scrolls), papyrus (estimated at 8–13% of the scrolls), and sheets of bronze composed of about 99% copper and 1% tin (approximately 1.5% of the scrolls).[69][70] For those scrolls written on animal hides, scholars with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, by use of DNA testing for assembly purposes, believe that there may be a hierarchy in the religious importance of the texts based on which type of animal was used to create the hide. Scrolls written on goat and calf hides are considered by scholars to be more significant in nature, while those written on gazelle or ibex are considered to be less religiously significant in nature.[71] In addition, tests by the National Institute of Nuclear Physics in Sicily, Italy, have suggested that the origin of parchment of select Dead Sea Scroll fragments is from the Qumran area itself, by using X-ray and Particle-induced X-ray emission testing of the water used to make the parchment that were compared with the water from the area around the Qumran site.[72] Preservation Two of the pottery jars that held some of the Dead Sea Scrolls found at Qumran Two Dead Sea Scrolls jars at the Jordan Museum, Amman The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea.[73] In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation.[74] Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced at Qumran.[75] During the first few years in the late 1940s and early 1950s, adhesive tape used to join fragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to the documents.[75] The government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls.[76] However, the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be "adequately studied".[76] In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum (commonly called the Rockefeller Museum)[77] in East Jerusalem and through their transportation suffered more deterioration and damage.[19]: 63–65  The museum was underfunded and had limited resources with which to examine the scrolls, and, as a result, conditions of the "scrollery" and storage area were left relatively uncontrolled by modern standards.[19] The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During a portion of the conflict during the 1956 war waged by Israel, Britain and France against Egypt, the scrolls collection of the Palestine Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan.[78] Damp conditions from temporary storage of the scrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 led to a more rapid rate of deterioration of the scrolls. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault.[78] By 1958 it was noted that up to 5% of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated.[76] Many of the texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably.[19][75] Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to different adhesives, and being trapped in moist environments.[75] Fragments written on parchment (rather than papyrus or bronze) in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of the museum, with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966.[18] In the late 1960s, the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Scholars John Allegro and Sir Francis Frank were among the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques.[19] Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals, including "British Leather Dressing," and darkening some of them significantly.[19] In the 1970s and 1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage; however, the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time.[75] In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature-controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants.[75] The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area.[75] Nine tiny phylactery slips were rediscovered by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) in 2014, after they had been stored unopened for six decades following their excavation in 1952. The IAA is preparing to unroll the phylacteries or tefillin once a safe procedure has been decided upon.[79][80] Photography and assembly Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process, they were not all photographed by the same organization. First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research (1948) The first individual person to photograph a portion of the collection was John C. Trever (1916–2006), a biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research.[19]: 68  He photographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February 1948, both on black-and-white and standard color film.[19]: 26 [17]: 396 [81] Although an amateur photographer, the quality of his photographs often exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as, over the years, the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removed from their linen wrappings. Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum (1952–1967) A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archaeological Museum. The museum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem,[82] Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five-stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, using infrared photography. Using a process known today as broadband fluorescence infrared photography, or NIR photography, Najib and the team at the museum produced over 1,750 photographic plates of the scrolls and fragments.[19]: 68 [83][84][85] The photographs were taken with the scrolls laid out on animal skin, using large format film, which caused the text to stand out, making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments.[19]: 68  These are the earliest photographs of the museum's collection, which was the most complete in the world at the time, and they recorded the fragments and scrolls before their further decay in storage, so they are often considered the best recorded copies of the scrolls.[86] Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993–2012) A previously unreadable fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls photographed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory using digital infrared technology. Translated into English it reads: "He wrote the words of Noah." Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[87] In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed.[88] NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique, adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order to reveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[88] The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order to photograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and, as a result, image distortion is significantly diminished.[87] This method was used with select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and details that cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal.[87] The camera and digital imaging assembly was developed specifically for the purpose of photographing illegible ancient texts.[89] On 18 December 2012[90] the first output of this project was launched together with Google on the dedicated site Deadseascrolls.org.il.[91] The site contains both digitizations of old images taken in the 1950s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology.[92] Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006–2020) Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significance based on the type of material that was used.[71] In a paper published in 2020 in the journal Cell, researchers from Tel Aviv University have shown that ancient DNA extracted from the ancient scrolls can be used to sort different scroll fragments not only based on the animal species but also based on variations in the nuclear genome of individual fragments. This effort enabled the researchers to match different fragments to each other based on their genetics and separate fragments which were falsely connected in the past.[93][94] Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011–2016) In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain.[95] The lead photographer of the project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus-II back in order to produce ultra-high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments.[96] With photos taken at 1,200 megapixels, the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the naked eye. In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments, photographers are using a 1/4000th of a second exposure time and UV-protected flash tubes.[95] The digital photography project was estimated in 2011 to cost approximately 3.5 million U.S. dollars.[96] Scholarly examination Eleazar Sukenik examining one of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1951 After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them and log them for translation and study in a room that became known as the "scrollery".[97] The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean. Language Script Percentage of documents Centuries of known use Hebrew Assyrian block script[98] Estimated 76–79% 3rd century BCE to present Hebrew Cryptic scripts "A" "B" and "C"[99][100][101]: 375  Estimated 0.9–1.0%[102] Unknown Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew script[103] Estimated 1.0–1.5%[100] 10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew scribal script[103] Aramaic Aramaic square script Estimated 16–17%[101]: 9  8th century BCE to present Greek Greek uncial script[103] Estimated 3%[100] 3rd century BCE to 8th century CE Nabataean Nabataean script[104] Estimated 0.2%[104] 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE Publication Physical publication and controversy Scholars assembling Dead Sea Scrolls fragments at the Rockefeller Museum (formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum) Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of the longer, more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Their translations into English soon followed. Controversy Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades, and delays have been a source of academic controversy. The scrolls were controlled by a small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell, while a majority of scholars had access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text. Scholars such as Norman Golb, publishers and writers such as Hershel Shanks, and many others argued for decades for publishing the texts, so that they become available to researchers. This controversy only ended in 1991, when the Biblical Archaeology Society was able to publish the "Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls", after an intervention of the Israeli government and the Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA).[105] In 1991 Emanuel Tov was appointed as the chairman of the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation, and publication of the scrolls followed in the same year. Physical description The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many to be excessively slow. During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum from the 1950s through the 1960s, access to the unpublished documents was limited to the editorial committee.[citation needed] Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (1955–2009) The content of the scrolls was published in a 40-volume series by Oxford University Press between 1955 and 2009 known as Discoveries in the Judaean Desert.[106] In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them.[107] The initial publication, assembled by Dominique Barthélemy and Józef Milik, was published as Qumran Cave 1 in 1955.[106] After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early 1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch-Israeli textual scholar Emanuel Tov as editor-in-chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated. Tov's team had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by 1995. Between 1990 and 2009, Tov helped the team produce 32 volumes. The final volume, Volume XL, was published in 2009. A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (1991) In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts.[108] Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to the library's complete set of photographs of the scrolls. In the fall of that year, Wacholder published 17 documents that had been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of the International Team; in the same month, there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimiles of the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library. Thereafter, the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreed to lift their long-standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls.[109] A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1991) After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client", who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991.[110] Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman, Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement for publishing, without authorization or attribution, his decipherment of one of the scrolls, MMT. The District Court of Jerusalem found in favour of Qimron in September 1993.[111] The Court issued a restraining order, which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text, and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100,000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution. Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel, which approved the District Court's decision, in August 2000. The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over to Qimron all the infringing copies.[112] The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright law scholars.[113][114][115][116][117] The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007–2008) In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile Editions Limited, to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), The Order of the Community (1QS), and The Pesher to Habakkuk (1QpHab).[118][119] The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah Scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the real Isaiah Scroll.[118] Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition in Seoul, South Korea, and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London. A further 46 sets including facsimiles of three fragments from Cave 4 (now in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Amman, Jordan) Testimonia (4Q175), Pesher Isaiahb (4Q162) and Qohelet (4Q109) were announced in May 2009. The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchment paper or real parchment. The complete facsimile set (three scrolls including the Isaiah Scroll and the three Jordanian fragments) can be purchased for $60,000.[118] The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumrân. Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France (2010)[120] and Verbum Domini at the Vatican, Rome, Italy (2012).[121] Digital publication Olive Tree Bible Software (2000–2011) The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Martin Abegg, Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley, British Columbia, Canada.[122] It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software - BibleReader, on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references, and on Windows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks. The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (2005) The text of almost all of the non-biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisher E.J. Brill in 2005.[123] The 2,400 page, 6-volume series, was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov.[124] Unlike the text translations in the physical publication, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, the texts are sorted by genres that include religious law, parabiblical texts, calendrical and sapiental texts, and poetic and liturgical works.[123] The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea Scrolls are now available online on two dedicated websites. On 19 October 2010, it was announced[125] that Israeli Antiquities Authority would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge,[91] on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools. Related findings Two silver scroll-shaped amulets dated c. 600 BCE and containing portions of the Priestly Blessing from the Book of Numbers were excavated in Jerusalem at Ketef Hinnom. On 25 September 2011 the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls site went online.[126][127] It gives users access to searchable, high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts and their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online: the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll. Biblical significance See also: Biblical canon and Biblical manuscript Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew-language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to the 10th century CE, such as the Aleppo Codex.[128] Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century. The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a full thousand years, to the 2nd century BCE.[129] This was a significant discovery for Old Testament scholars who anticipated that the Dead Sea Scrolls would either affirm or repudiate the reliability of textual transmission from the original texts to the oldest Masoretic texts at hand. The discovery demonstrated the unusual accuracy of transmission over a thousand-year period, rendering it reasonable to believe that current Old Testament texts are reliable copies of the original works. According to The Dead Sea Scrolls by Hebrew scholar Millar Burrows Of the 166 words in Isaiah 53, there are only seventeen letters in question. Ten of these letters are simply a matter of spelling, which does not affect the sense. Four more letters are minor stylistic changes, such as conjunctions. The remaining three letters comprise the word "light," which is added in verse 11, and does not affect the meaning greatly.[130] It is important to note that differences were found among fragments of texts. According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology: While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to the Masoretic, or traditional, Hebrew text of the Old Testament, some manuscripts of the books of Exodus and Samuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content. In their astonishing range of textual variants, the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once-accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families: of the Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is now becoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization around A.D. 100.[131] Biblical books found There are 225 biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents, or around 22% of the total, and with deuterocanonical books the number increases to 235.[132][14] The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of the books of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon. They also include four of the deuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles: Tobit, Sirach, Baruch 6 (also known as the Letter or Epistle of Jeremiah), and Psalm 151.[132] The Book of Esther has not yet been found and scholars believe Esther is missing because, as a Jew, her marriage to a Persian king may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran,[133] or because the book has the Purim festival which is not included in the Qumran calendar.[19]: 180  Listed below are the most represented books, along with the deuterocanonicals, of the Bible found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including the number of translatable Dead Sea texts that represent a copy of scripture from each biblical book:[134][135] Book Number found Psalms 39 Deuteronomy 33 1 Enoch 25 Genesis 24 Isaiah 22 Jubilees 21 Exodus 18 Leviticus 17 Numbers 11 Minor Prophets 10[note 1] Daniel 8 Jeremiah 6 Ezekiel 6 Job 6 Tobit 5[note 2] Kings 4 Samuel 4 Judges 4[138] Song of Songs (Canticles) 4 Ruth 4 Lamentations 4 Sirach 3 Ecclesiastes 2 Joshua 2 Non-biblical books The majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non-biblical in nature and were thought to be insignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the biblical books, but a consensus has emerged which sees many of these works as being collected by the Essene community instead of being composed by them.[139] Scholars now recognize that some of these works were composed earlier than the Essene period, when some of the biblical books were still being written or redacted into their final form.[139] Museum exhibitions and displays Visitors examining Dead Sea Scrolls displayed at the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem Strip of the Copper Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 written in the Hebrew Mishnaic dialect, on display at the Jordan Museum, Amman Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions were co-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six-Day War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage. The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection was moved to Jerusalem's Shrine of the Book (a part of the Israel Museum) after the building's completion in April 1965.[140] The museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[141][142] Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 were stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities. Since 2013, the part of the collection held by Jordan has been on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman.[143] Among the display items are artefacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.[144] Ownership Advertisement in The Wall Street Journal dated 1 June 1954 for four of the "Dead Sea Scrolls" Upon their discovery in 1947 in what was then Mandatory Palestine, the Dead Sea Scrolls were first moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum. Following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) in the aftermath of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the museum's management become the responsibility of Jordan. Following the 1967 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan was defeated and Israel began to occupy the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The Palestine Archeological Museum (soon renamed the Rockefeller Archeological Museum) fell under Israeli administration, and the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held there was moved to the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum in West Jerusalem.[140] The Israel Museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[141][142] Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 were stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands, under their Department of Antiquities. Since 2013, the part of the collection held by Jordan has been on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman.[143] Among the display items are artefacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.[144] Israel claims ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection currently housed at the Israel Museum. This claimed ownership is contested by both Jordan and the Palestinian Authority.[145] Forgeries and claimed private ownership Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That third party, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syriac Orthodox Church, who soon contacted St Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as Mar Samuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls found their way into his hands: the Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), the Community Rule, the Habakkuk Pesher (a commentary on the book of Habakkuk), and the Genesis Apocryphon. More scrolls soon surfaced in the antiquities market, and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and Professor Benjamin Mazar, archaeologists at Hebrew University, soon found themselves in possession of three, The War Scroll, Thanksgiving Hymns, and another, more fragmented, Isaiah Scroll (1QIsab). Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls eventually went up for sale in an advertisement on 1 June 1954, The Wall Street Journal.[146] On 1 July 1954, the scrolls, after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including the Metropolitan, arrived at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York. They were purchased by Professor Mazar and the son of Professor Sukenik, Yigael Yadin, for $250,000 (approximately $2,800,000 in 2023 dollars[147]), and brought to Jerusalem.[148] Since 2002, many forgeries of Dead Sea Scrolls have appeared on black markets.[149] In 2020, the Museum of the Bible in the United States (also known as Green Collection – Green Family) reported that all 16 purported "Dead Sea Scroll fragments" they had acquired between 2009 and 2014[150][151] were in fact modern forgeries.[152][153] List of claimed private ownerships of Dead Sea Scroll fragments Claimed Owner Year Acquired Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned Azusa Pacific University[154] 2009 5 Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago[155] 1956 1 Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary[156] 2009; 2010; 2012 8 Israel Museum – Government of Israel[157][158] 1967 > 15,000 The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen[159] 1980; 1994; 1995 115[150] The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan[143] 1947–1956 > 25 Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese[160] 1 Ashland Theological Seminary[160] 1 Lanier Theological Library[160] 1 Pasadena Private Collection[160] 1 Ownership disputes The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority. The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more general Israeli–Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition. Parties involved Party role Explanation of role Jordan Disputant; minority owner Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestine Archaeological Museum (now the Rockefeller Museum) operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the museum, and that therefore they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.[161] Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legal documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.[162] Israel Disputant; current majority holder After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum. Israel disputes Jordan's claim and states that Jordan never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an unlawful occupier of the museum and region.[163][164][165] Palestine Disputant The Palestinian Authority also claims ownership of the scrolls.[166] Copyright disputes This section needs attention from an expert in law. The specific problem is: Complexity of copyright law surrounding historical documents in the United States and other nations. WikiProject Law may be able to help recruit an expert. (June 2012) There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous; the documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law. In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v. Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about 40% of the published text. In 1993, the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff, Elisha Qimron, in context of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law for aggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others.[167] In an appeal in 2000 in front of Judge Aharon Barak, the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron's favour.[168] The court case established the two main principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel: authorship and originality. The court's ruling not only affirms that the "deciphered text" of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals or groups, but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholars have a degree of, in the words of U.S. copyright law professor David Nimmer, "freedom" in access. Nimmer has shown how this freedom was in the theory of law applicable, but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlled access to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls.[167]

A bounty hunter (Robert Culp) is searching for Tate for a murder that he did not commit. This episode also features a young Robert Redford, and actress Louise Fletcher, known for her role as Kai Winn Adami in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Tate is an American Western television series starring David McLean that aired on NBC from June 8 until September 14, 1960.[1][2] It was created by Harry Julian Fink (the creator of Dirty Harry and T.H.E. Cat), who wrote most of the scripts, and produced by Perry Como's Roncom Video Films, Inc., as a summer replacement for The Perry Como Show. Richard Whorf guest-starred once on the series and directed the majority of the episodes. Ida Lupino directed two segments. Overview David McLean starred as Tate, who lost the use of his left arm during the American Civil War. Because he was injured at the Battle of Vicksburg in Mississippi, Tate's arm is covered in black leather and a glove and supported by a sling. Tate is a widower, but the cause of the death of his wife, Mary, is not specified in the series, although a gunfight seems likely. Tate had left his hometown as a teenager because of such a fight. At the urging of Marshal Morty Taw, whom viewers meet in the pilot episode, "Home Town", Tate arrives to help Taw hang an old childhood friend, played by James Coburn, who has murdered four people. Tate roams the Old West as a bounty hunter-gunfighter. True to the nature of most hired guns on television Western series, Tate was discriminating as to for whom he worked, and would change sides if he found himself misled by his employers. As a gunman, he is wickedly fast on the draw. He also carries a shotgun, in his words, "to help even the odds." His reputation precedes him, and other men often seek him out in a gunfight...often to their regret. The fact that Tate is physically disabled made him the first handicapped lead character in television history, and paved the way for future programs Ironside with Raymond Burr and Longstreet, starring James Franciscus. Background and production Some references cite that Tate was recorded on videotape; at the time, most nonlive programs were shot on film. In fact, the series was filmed, as evidenced by quality of DVD copies of episodes. The misconception seems to come from the name of Como's production company; in this case, the "Video" in Roncom Video Films, Inc. meant they made films for television. Sponsored by Kraft Foods, Tate was a summer replacement show, filling in for the second half-hour of Perry Como's Kraft Music Hall as part of the Kraft Summer Theater. Airing after the sitcom Happy, with Ronnie Burns, Tate did not develop the popularity in its short run to be extended thereafter as a regular series. At the time, McLean was already well known as the Marlboro Man, one of the more famous spots in advertising history. McLean died in 1995 of lung cancer, brought on by many years of smoking. On October 30, 2007, the entire run of 13 episodes was released in a Region One, three-DVD set by Timeless Media Group. Most of the series is in the public domain. Guest stars Robert Redford was cast in two episodes some six weeks apart, as John Torsett in "The Bounty Hunter" and as Tad Dundee in "Comanche Scalps", the latter segment with Leonard Nimoy as the Comanche and veteran character actor Lane Bradford as William Essey. Others cast on Tate were: Julie Adams Chris Alcaide Patricia Breslin James Coburn Robert Culp Royal Dano Ted de Corsia Louise Fletcher Peggy Ann Garner Jock Gaynor Marianna Hill Martin Landau Mort Mills Warren Oates Paul Richards Bing Russell Robert F. Simon Vaughn Taylor Warren Vanders Peter Whitney Don Wilbanks Episode list No. Title Original air date 1 "Home Town" June 8, 1960 Tate returns to his hometown to help the local sheriff out of difficulty. Guest stars were James Coburn and Royal Dano. 2 "Stopover" June 15, 1960 After Tate wins a gunfight with a man considered to be the fastest around, a braggart challenges Tate to a duel. 3 "The Bounty Hunter" June 22, 1960 A bounty hunter (Robert Culp) is searching for Tate for a murder that he did not commit. This episode also features a young Robert Redford, and actress Louise Fletcher, known for her role as Kai Winn Adami in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. 4 "The Mary Hardin Story" June 29, 1960 A widow engages Tate's services to protect her son and herself from a pair of greedy land grabbers. 5 "Voices of the Town" July 6, 1960 In the midst of trying to capture a criminal, Tate is forced to shoot the criminal's wife, which results in the couple's neighbors seeking revenge. 6 "A Lethal Pride" July 20, 1960 Tate is hired by a Mexican national to avenge an assault on his daughter, (played by Marianna Hill, best known for the Star Trek episode, "Dagger of the Mind"), but a death occurs before justice is served. 7 "Tigrero" August 3, 1960 Tate is shot in the leg while transporting a killer, John Chess (played by Martin Landau), through a cattle town. A powerful cattle baron's brother is killed, and he hunts Tate and Chess in retaliation. 8 "Comanche Scalps" August 10, 1960 Tate attempts to convince a man not to kill his brother, but is thwarted by an Indian raiding party. 9 "Before Sunup" August 17, 1960 While trying to protect a man, Tate finds himself involved in a blazing gunfight. 10 "The Reckoning" August 24, 1960 Hired to serve justice on a killer, Tate finds a rejected suitor has set off a chain reaction of death and bitterness. 11 "The Gunfighters" August 31, 1960 Tate is hired by farmers to collect their back pay, and is at the mercy of a hired gunslinger. 12 "Quiet After the Storm" September 7, 1960 In the midst of bringing a killer to justice, Tate must fend off an angry lynch mob. 13 "The Return of Jessica Jackson" September 14, 1960 Tate helps rescue a woman who has been held by Indians for the past eight years.

Joseph Smith: The Prophet of the Restoration is a 2005 film that focuses on some of the events during the life of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, which was both filmed and distributed by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The film was shown in the Legacy Theater of the Joseph Smith Memorial Building from its opening on December 17, 2005 until early 2015, and opened in several LDS Church visitors' centers on December 24, 2005. The film used the digital intermediate process.[1] In March 2011, the church released a revised cut of the film, which is available to watch in select visitors' centers and online.[2] Additionally, the church has released the film in several languages including ASL, Spanish, French, German, and Japanese. The film is available for free on YouTube, on the LDS Church's official channel.[3] Plot In a prologue, Mary, a recent Mormon convert, has traveled over 4,000 miles to Nauvoo, Illinois, with her father to meet Joseph Smith. Her father asks if she intends to find out whether Smith is a prophet of God. Mary responds that she already knows he is, and that her father can know too by reading what he wrote. Mary's father begins to read an issue of Times and Seasons and the Book of Mormon. In 1813, young Joseph Smith suffers a severe injury and subsequent infection to his left leg. He undergoes an experimental operation to remove the infected parts of the bone, thus avoiding the need for amputation. In the spring of 1820, Smith receives his First Vision of God and Jesus Christ, in which he is told not to join any existing churches, as he will be called to start his own. Three years later, the Angel Moroni tells him where to find the golden plates which will form the holy scriptures of this new church. Shortly thereafter, Joseph's eldest brother, Alvin, dies. Smith meets and marries Emma Hale, against the objections of her parents. A few years later, Smith retrieves and translates the golden plates. During one session of translation, Smith and his scribe, Oliver Cowdery, pray to learn more about a particular doctrine. They receive a visitation from John the Baptist, who confers upon them the authority to baptize. Next is a visitation of Peter, James and John, who confer upon them the authority to organize the Church of Christ, which they do in April 1830. The nascent church suffers persecution and harassment, forcing a move to Kirtland, Ohio in 1836. While in Kirtland, Smith reveals that God wants them to build a temple. After it is finished and a meeting has been held, Smith and Cowdery see another vision where God accepts the temple. Other personages then appear and confer additional priesthood keys or authorities on them. Smith calls several men to travel and preach the gospel to the British Isles for the first time. During this time, Mary meets the missionaries and joins the church. Despite the success of the finished temple and visions, Smith and many others are forced to move several more times to escape persecution, eventually ending up in Nauvoo, Illinois, where they build another temple. Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum discover their old enemies are trying to get them to Carthage, Illinois to kill them. Joseph decides to confront them directly, telling Hyrum that if they go, they will not come back. Smith transfers his authority to his apostles, including Brigham Young. On June 24, 1844, Smith, Hyrum, and two other men, John Taylor and Willard Richards mount their horses and ride through the town on the way out of town. Meanwhile, Mary and her father, who have just arrived in Nauvoo, attempt to follow the riders so that they can meet Smith, but give up when the riders pass out of town. Mary's father says, "We don't have to meet him to know that he is a prophet." The Smith brothers report to the jail in Carthage, as requested, when men with guns force their way into the jail and kill them. The film ends with some of Smith's words from the Doctrine and Covenants: "Shall we not go on in so great a cause?"[4] Release The Deseret News reported in 2005 that production on the film "was rushed" in order to meet the church's 2005 bicentennial of Smith's birthday.[5] The film has been shown at a number of the church's visitors' center locations, including at the Mesa Arizona, Laie Hawaii, Idaho Falls Idaho, Los Angeles California, Hamilton New Zealand, Oakland California, St. George Utah, Washington D.C., London England temples, along with the Historic Kirtland, Historic Nauvoo, Hill Cumorah, and Independence Missouri centers. It has also been shown at the Cove Fort, Liberty Jail and San Diego Mormon Battalion historic sites, along with the Joseph Smith Birthplace Memorial, and the Mormon Trail Center at Historic Winter Quarters.[6] DVD The original film was released on DVD through the church's Distribution Services on October 1, 2010, as part of the DVD set "Doctrine and Covenants and Church History Visual Resource DVDs". 2011 revision In March 2011, the church released a new version of the film. The revised cut is expected to help those unfamiliar with Smith's story understand it better than the original did.[7][1] The revisions to the film included a new narration given by Smith's mother, Lucy Mack Smith, while 40 percent of the film is new content, and it is also five minutes shorter than the original. Because of the level of new content added, some new filming was required.[2] The revised film is available online, on the church's YouTube channel—Mormon Messages—and is available for download on their radio service website, the Mormon Channel. The revised film was shown in the Legacy Theater.[8] and at select church visitors' centers through early 2015. There are no plans to release the revised edition on DVD since it is available to download.[7]

Porky Pig is shipwrecked on an island and lives like Robinson Crusoe and meets a Hottentot which he nicknames Friday. Friday begins to sing a song with Porky and a turtle by singing, "I love coffee, I love tea, I love the java jive and it loves me!" Porky decides to hunt for some animals but comes across more Hottentots. Eventually, Porky flees from the Hottentots with his trusty sidekick, Friday. Hottentot (British and South African English /ˈhɒtənˌtɒt/ HOT-ən-TOT) is a term that was historically used by Europeans to refer to the Khoekhoe, the indigenous nomadic pastoralists in South Africa. Hottentot head of Shark Island prisoner used for medical experimentation Use of the term Hottentot is now considered offensive, the preferred name[according to whom?] for the non Bantu speaking indigenous people of the Western Cape area being Khoekhoe (formerly Khoikhoi).[2] Etymology Hottentot originated among the "old Dutch" settlers of the Dutch Cape Colony run by United East India Company (VOC), who arrived in the region in the 1650s,[3] and it entered English usage from Dutch in the seventeenth century.[4] However, no definitive Dutch etymology for the term is known. A widely claimed etymology is from a supposed Dutch expression equivalent to "stammerer, stutterer", applied to the Khoikhoi on account of the distinctive click consonants in their languages. There is, however, no earlier attestation of a word hottentot to support this theory. An alternative possibility is that the name derived from an overheard term in chants accompanying Khoikhoi or San dances, but seventeenth-century transcriptions of such chants offer no conclusive evidence for this.[4] An early Anglicisation of the term is recorded as hodmandod in the years around 1700.[5] The reduced Afrikaans/Dutch form hotnot has also been borrowed into South African English as a derogatory term for black people, including Cape Coloureds.[6] Usage as an ethnic term In seventeenth-century Dutch, Hottentot was at times used to denote all black people (synonymously with Kaffir, which was at times likewise used for Cape Coloureds and Khoisans), but at least some speakers were careful to use the term Hottentot to denote what they thought of as a race distinct from the supposedly darker-skinned people referred to as Kaffirs. This distinction between the non-Bantu "Cape Blacks" or "Cape Coloureds" and the Bantu was noted as early as 1684 by the French anthropologist François Bernier.[7] The idea that Hottentot referred strictly to the non-Bantu peoples of southern Africa was well embedded in colonial scholarly thought by the end of the eighteenth century.[8] The main meaning of Hottentot as an ethnic term in the 19th and the 20th centuries has therefore been to denote the Khoikhoi people specifically.[9] However, Hottentot also continued to be used through the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries in a wider sense, to include all of the people now usually referred to with the modern term Khoisan (not only the Khoikhoi, but also the San people, hunter-gatherer populations from the interior of southern Africa who had not been known to the seventeenth-century settlers, once often referred to as Bosjesmannen in Dutch and Bushmen in English).[10][11] In George Murdock's Atlas of World Cultures (1981), the author refers to "Hottentots" as a "subfamily of the Khoisan linguistic family" who "became detribalized in contact with Dutch settlers in 1652, mixing with the latter and with slaves brought by them from Indonesia to form the hybrid population known today as the Cape Coloured."[12] The term Hottentot remained in use as a technical ethnic term in anthropological and historiographical literature into the late 1980s.[13] The 1996 edition of the Dictionary of South African English merely says that "the word 'Hottentot' is seen by some as offensive and Khoikhoi is sometimes substituted as a name for the people, particularly in scholarly contexts".[14] Yet, by the 1980s, because of the racist connotations discussed below, it was increasingly seen as too derogatory and offensive to be used in an ethnic sense.[15] Usage as a term of abuse and racist connotations From the eighteenth century onwards, the term hottentot was also a term of abuse without a specific ethnic sense, comparable to barbarian or cannibal.[16] According to James Boswell's The Life of Johnson, Samuel Johnson was parodied in Lord Chesterfield's Letters of 1737 as "a respectable Hottentot". In its ethnic sense, Hottentot had developed its connotations of savagery and primitivism by the seventeenth century; colonial depictions of the Hottentots (Khoikhoi) in the seventeenth to eighteenth century were characterized by savagery, often suggestive of cannibalism or the consumption of raw flesh, physiological features such as steatopygia and elongated labia perceived as primitive or "simian" and a perception of the click sounds in the Khoikhoi languages as "bestial".[17] Thus, it can be said that the European, colonial image of "the Hottentot" from the seventeenth century onwards bore little relation to any realities of the Khoisan in Africa, and that this image fed into the usage of hottentot as a generalised derogatory term.[18] Correspondingly, the word is "sometimes used as ugly slang for a black person".[19] Use of the derived term hotnot was explicitly proscribed in South Africa by 2008.[20] Accordingly, much recent scholarship on the history of colonial attitudes to the Khoisan or on the European trope of "the Hottentot" puts the term Hottentot in scare quotes.[21] Other usages In its original role of ethnic designator, the term Hottentot was included into a variety of derived terms, such as the Hottentot Corps,[22] the first Coloured unit to be formed in the South African army, originally called the Corps Bastaard Hottentoten (Dutch; in English: "Corps Bastard Hottentots"), organised in 1781 by the Dutch colonial administration of the time.[23]: 51  The word is also used in the common names of a wide variety of plants and animals,[24] such as the Africanis dogs sometimes called "Hottentot hunting dogs", the fish Pachymetopon blochii, frequently simply called hottentots, Carpobrotus edulis, commonly known as a "hottentot-fig", and Trachyandra, commonly known as "hottentot cabbage". It has also given rise to the scientific name for one genus of scorpion, Hottentotta, and may be the origin of the epithet tottum in the botanical name Leucospermum tottum.[25] The word is still used as part of a tongue-twister in modern Dutch, "Hottentottententententoonstelling", meaning a "Hottentot tent exhibition".[26] In the 1964 film Mary Poppins, Admiral Boom mistakes the rooftop-dancing chimney sweeps for an attack by "Hottentots". In 2024, the BBFC raised the film's age rating from U to PG due to this instance of "discriminatory language".[27] The name of Reiner Knizia's game "Schotten-Totten" is a portmanteau of the German words "Schotten" (Scottish people) and "Hottentotten" (Hottentots).[citation needed]

Robinson Crusoe is a 1927 British silent drama film produced and directed by M.A. Wetherell who also played the title role. A sound version was released in 1932. While the sound version had no audible dialog, it featured a synchronized musical score with sound effects. In addition to M.A. Wetherell, the film also starred Fay Compton and Herbert Waithe. It is an adaptation of the 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe. The screenplay concerns a shipwrecked man stranded on a desert island. The film was made at Cricklewood Studios and Lime Grove Studios in London. Cast M.A. Wetherell as Robinson Crusoe Fay Compton as Sophie Bruce Herbert Waithe as Man Friday Reginald Fox Alexander Selkirk (1676 – 13 December 1721) was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent four years and four months as a castaway (1704–1709) after being marooned by his captain, initially at his request, on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean. He survived but died from tropical illness years later while serving as a lieutenant[1] aboard HMS Weymouth off West Africa. Selkirk was an unruly youth and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on Cinque Ports, captained by Thomas Stradling, under the overall command of William Dampier. Stradling's ship stopped to resupply at the uninhabited Juan Fernández Islands, west of South America, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there. Selkirk's suspicions were soon justified, as Cinque Ports foundered near Malpelo Island 400 km (250 mi) from the coast of what is now Colombia. By the time he was eventually rescued by the privateer Woodes Rogers, who was accompanied by Dampier, Selkirk had become adept at hunting and making use of the resources that he found on the island. His story of survival was widely publicized after his return, becoming one of the reputed sources of inspiration for the English writer Daniel Defoe's fictional character Robinson Crusoe. Early life and privateering Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676.[2] In his youth, he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. He was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693[3] for his "indecent conduct in church", but he "did not appear, being gone to sea". He was back at Largo in 1701 when he again came to the attention of church authorities for assaulting his brothers.[4] Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering. In 1703, he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean,[5] setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September.[6] They carried letters of marque from the Lord High Admiral authorizing their armed merchant ships to attack foreign enemies as the War of the Spanish Succession was then going on between England and Spain.[7] Dampier was captain of St George and Selkirk served on Cinque Ports, St George's companion ship, as sailing master under Captain Thomas Stradling.[8] By this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea.[4] In February 1704, following a stormy passage around Cape Horn,[9] the privateers fought a long battle with a well-armed French vessel, St Joseph, only to have it escape to warn its Spanish allies of their arrival in the Pacific.[10] A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their landing party was ambushed.[11] The easy capture of Asunción, a heavily laden merchantman, revived the men's hopes of plunder, and Selkirk was put in charge of the prize ship. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar, and flour, then abruptly set the ship free, arguing that the gain was not worth the effort. In May 1704, Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own.[12] Castaway Shaded relief map of Robinson Crusoe Island with blue ocean background Map of Robinson Crusoe Island (formerly Más a Tierra island), where Selkirk lived as a castaway In September 1704, after parting ways with Dampier,[13] Captain Stradling brought Cinque Ports to an island known to the Spanish as Más a Tierra located in the uninhabited Juan Fernández archipelago 670 km (420 mi) off the coast of Chile for a mid-expedition restocking of fresh water and supplies.[14] Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel and wanted to make the necessary repairs before going any further. He declared that he would rather stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship.[15] Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, a Bible, bedding and some clothes.[16] Selkirk immediately regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board.[15] Cinque Ports later foundered off the coast of what is now Colombia. Stradling and some of his crew survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. The survivors were taken to Lima, Peru, where they endured a harsh imprisonment.[17] Life on the island At first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Más a Tierra. During this time, he ate spiny lobsters and scanned the ocean daily for rescue, suffering all the while from loneliness, misery, and remorse. Hordes of raucous sea lions, gathering on the beach for the mating season, eventually drove him to the island's interior.[18] Once inland, his way of life took a turn for the better. More foods were available there: feral goats—introduced by earlier sailors—provided him with meat and milk, while wild turnips, the leaves of the indigenous cabbage tree and dried Schinus fruits (pink peppercorns) offered him variety and spice. Rats would attack him at night, but he was able to sleep soundly and in safety by domesticating and living near feral cats.[19] Engraving of Selkirk sitting in the doorway of a hut reading a Bible Selkirk reading his Bible in one of two huts he built on a mountainside Selkirk proved resourceful in using materials that he found on the island: he forged a new knife out of barrel hoops left on the beach;[20] built two huts out of pepper trees, one of which he used for cooking and the other for sleeping; and employed his musket to hunt goats and his knife to clean their carcasses. As his gunpowder dwindled, he had to chase prey on foot. During one such chase, he was badly injured when he tumbled from a cliff, lying helpless and unable to move for about a day. His prey had cushioned his fall, probably sparing him a broken back.[21] Childhood lessons learned from his father, a tanner, now served him well. For example, when his clothes wore out, he made new ones from hair-covered goatskins using a nail for sewing. As his shoes became unusable, he did not need to replace them, since his toughened, calloused feet made protection unnecessary.[20] He sang psalms and read from the Bible, finding it a comfort in his situation and a prop for his English.[16] During his sojourn on the island, two vessels came to anchor. Unfortunately for Selkirk, both were Spanish. Being British and a privateer, he would have faced a grim fate if captured and therefore did his best to hide. Once, he was spotted and chased by a group of Spanish sailors from one of the ships. His pursuers urinated beneath the tree in which he was hiding but failed to notice him. The would-be captors then gave up and sailed away.[15] Rescue Selkirk, seated in a ship's boat, being taken aboard Duke. The rescued Selkirk, seated at right, being taken aboard Duke. Selkirk's long-awaited deliverance came on 2 February 1709 by way of Duke,[22] a privateering ship piloted by William Dampier, and its sailing companion Duchess.[23] Thomas Dover led the landing party that met Selkirk.[24] After four years and four months without human company, Selkirk was almost incoherent with joy.[25] The Duke's captain and leader of the expedition was Woodes Rogers, who wryly referred to Selkirk as the governor of the island. The agile castaway caught two or three goats a day and helped restore the health of Rogers' men, who had developed scurvy.[26] Captain Rogers was impressed by Selkirk's physical vigour, but also by the peace of mind that he had attained while living on the island, observing: "One may see that solitude and retirement from the world is not such an insufferable state of life as most men imagine, especially when people are fairly called or thrown into it unavoidably, as this man was."[27] He made Selkirk Duke's second mate, later giving him command of one of their prize ships, Increase,[28] before it was ransomed by the Spanish.[29] Selkirk returned to privateering with a vengeance. At Guayaquil in present-day Ecuador, he led a boat crew up the Guayas River where several wealthy Spanish ladies had fled, and looted the gold and jewels they had hidden inside their clothing.[30] His part in the hunt for treasure galleons along the coast of Mexico resulted in the capture of Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño,[31] renamed Bachelor, on which he served as sailing master under Captain Dover to the Dutch East Indies.[32] Selkirk completed the around-the-world voyage by the Cape of Good Hope as the sailing master of Duke,[33] arriving at the Downs off the English coast on 1 October 1711.[34] He had been away for eight years.[6] Later life and influence Engraving of Robinson Crusoe standing on the shore of an island, dressed in hair-covered goatskin clothing An illustration of Crusoe in goatskin clothing shows the influence of Selkirk Selkirk's experience as a castaway aroused a great deal of attention in Britain. His fellow crewman Edward Cooke mentioned Selkirk's ordeal in a book chronicling their privateering expedition, A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World (1712). A more detailed recounting was published by the expedition's leader, Rogers, within months.[22] The following year, prominent essayist Richard Steele wrote an article about him for The Englishman newspaper. Selkirk appeared set to enjoy a life of ease and celebrity, claiming his share of Duke's plundered wealth—about £800[35] (equivalent to £150,500 today).[36] However, legal disputes made the amount of any payment uncertain.[37] After a few months in London, he began to seem more like his former self again.[35] However, he still missed his secluded and solitary moments, remarking, "I am now worth eight hundred pounds, but shall never be as happy as when I was not worth a farthing."[38] In September 1713, he was charged with assaulting a shipwright in Bristol and might have been kept in confinement for two years.[39] He returned to Lower Largo, where he met Sophia Bruce, a young dairymaid. They eloped to London early and married on 4 March 1717. He was soon off to sea again, having enlisted in the Royal Navy.[40] While on a visit to Plymouth in 1720, he married a widowed innkeeper named Frances Candis.[41] He was serving as an officer[42] on board HMS Weymouth, engaged in an anti-piracy patrol off the west coast of Africa. The ship lingered near the mouth of the River Gambia to resupply. However, the natives took several of their number hostages and ransomed them off for food. As the ship sailed down the coast of West Africa, men began to contract yellow fever from the swarms of mosquitoes that followed them. Selkirk became sick with the disease in early December. He died on 13 December 1721, along with shipmate William King. Both were buried at sea.[43] When Daniel Defoe published The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719), few readers could have missed the resemblance to Selkirk. An illustration on the first page of the novel shows "a rather melancholy-looking man standing on the shore of an island, gazing inland", in the words of modern explorer Tim Severin. He is dressed in the familiar hirsute goatskins, his feet and shins bare.[44] Yet Crusoe's island is located not in the mid-latitudes of the South Pacific but 4,300 km (2,700 mi) away in the Caribbean, where the furry attire would hardly be comfortable in the tropical heat. This incongruity supports the popular belief that Selkirk was a model for the fictional character,[45] though most literary scholars now accept that he was "just one of many survival narratives that Defoe knew about".[46] In other literary works Title page from The Life and Adventures of Alexander Selkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe (1835), by an unknown author William Cowper's "The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk" is about Selkirk's feelings as the castaway who lived all alone on the island. This poem gave rise to the common phrase "monarch of all I survey" via the verse: I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute; From the center all around to the sea, I am the lord of the fowl and the brute.[47] Jorge Luis Borges wrote a sonnet named after Selkirk. In it, Selkirk wakes from a dream of the island to find himself "returned to the world of men", and thinks of his past, castaway self as a separate person he wishes to comfort. Charles Dickens used Selkirk as a simile in Chapter Two of The Pickwick Papers (1836): "Colonel Builder and Sir Thomas Clubber exchanged snuff-boxes, and looked very much like a pair of Alexander Selkirks—' Monarchs of all they surveyed. '"[48] This is also a reference to William Cowper's poem.[47] Poet Patrick Kavanagh likens his loneliness on the road to that of Selkirk, in his poem "Inniskeen Road: July Evening": Oh, Alexander Selkirk knew the plight Of being king and government and nation. A road, a mile of the kingdom, I am king Of banks and stones and every blooming thing.[49] In "Etiquette", one of W. S. Gilbert's Bab Ballads, Selkirk is used as a model for the English castaways: These passengers, because they clung to a mast, Upon a desert island were eventually cast. They hunted for their meals, as Alexander Selkirk used, But they couldn't chat together—they had not been introduced.[50] Joshua Slocum mentions Selkirk in the book Sailing Alone Around the World (1900). During his visit to the Juan Fernández Islands, Slocum runs across a marker commemorating Selkirk's stay.[51] Diana Souhami draws on testimony from Selkirk and many others in her Selkirk's Island (2001), from a journey to rescue to arrival home and inspiration for the prolific Daniel Defoe. In Allan Cole and Chris Bunch's Sten science fiction series, Book Two, The Wolf Worlds, the Scottish character Alex bemoans their predicament after crash landing: "'A slack way for a mon,' Alex mourned to himself. 'Ah, didnae ken Ah'd ever been Alex Selkirk. '"[52] In film Selkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe is a stop motion film by Walter Tournier based on Selkirk's life. It premièred simultaneously in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay on 2 February 2012,[53] distributed by The Walt Disney Company. It was the first full-length animated feature to be produced in Uruguay.[54] Commemoration Bronze plaque in memory of Selkirk affixed to a building Plaque for Selkirk in Lower Largo, Scotland, which reads: "In memory of Alexander Selkirk, mariner, the original of Robinson Crusoe who lived on the island of Juan Fernández in complete solitude for four years and four months. He died 1723 [sic], lieutenant of HMS Weymouth, aged 47 years [sic]. This statue is erected by David Gillies, net manufacturer, on the site of the cottage in which Selkirk was born." Selkirk has been memorialized in his Scottish birthplace. Lord Aberdeen delivered a speech on 11 December 1885, after which his wife, Lady Aberdeen, unveiled a bronze statue and plaque in memory of Selkirk outside a house on the site of his original home on the Main Street of Lower Largo. David Gillies of Cardy House, Lower Largo, a descendant of the Selkirks, donated the statue created by Thomas Stuart Burnett.[55] The Scotsman is also remembered in his former island home. In 1869 the crew of HMS Topaze placed a bronze tablet at a spot called Selkirk's Lookout on a mountain of Más a Tierra, Juan Fernández Islands, to mark his stay.[56] On 1 January 1966 Chilean president Eduardo Frei Montalva renamed Más a Tierra Robinson Crusoe Island after Defoe's fictional character to attract tourists. The largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, known as Más Afuera, became Alejandro Selkirk Island, although Selkirk probably never saw that island since it is located 180 kilometres (110 miles; 100 nautical miles) to the west.[57] Archaeological findings An archaeological expedition to the Juan Fernández Islands in February 2005 found part of a nautical instrument that likely belonged to Selkirk. It was "a fragment of copper alloy identified as being from a pair of navigational dividers"[58] dating from the early 18th (or late 17th) century. Selkirk is the only person known to have been on the island at that time who is likely to have had dividers and was even said by Rogers to have had such instruments in his possession.[59] The artifact was discovered while excavating a site not far from Selkirk's Lookout where the famous castaway is believed to have lived.[60] In 1825, during John Howell's research of Alexander Selkirk's biography, his "flip-can" was in the possession of his great-grand-nephew John Selkirk, and Alexander's musket was "in the possession of Major Lumsden of Lathallan."

The Book of Enoch (also 1 Enoch;[a] Hebrew: סֵפֶר חֲנוֹךְ, Sēfer Ḥănōḵ; Ge'ez: መጽሐፈ ሄኖክ, Maṣḥafa Hēnok) is an ancient Hebrew apocalyptic religious text, ascribed by tradition to the patriarch Enoch who was the father of Methuselah and the great-grandfather of Noah.[1][2] The Book of Enoch contains unique material on the origins of demons and Nephilim, why some angels fell from heaven, an explanation of why the Genesis flood was morally necessary, and a prophetic exposition of the thousand-year reign of the Messiah. Three books are traditionally attributed to Enoch, including the distinct works 2 Enoch and 3 Enoch. None of the three are considered to be canonical scripture by most Jewish or Christian church bodies. The older sections of 1 Enoch are estimated to date from about 300–200 BC, and the latest part (Book of Parables) is probably to 100 BC.[3] Scholars believe Enoch was originally written in either Aramaic or Hebrew, the languages first used for Jewish texts. Ephraim Isaac suggests that the Book of Enoch, like the Book of Daniel, was composed partially in Aramaic and in Hebrew.[4]: 6  No Hebrew version is known to have survived. The individuals residing in the Qumran Caves, where the Dead Sea Scrolls and the book were unearthed, were not aligned with the mainstream Jewish sect known as the Pharisees. Instead, they were affiliated with a splinter group called the Essenes, who adhered to distinctive practices. Hence, the Book of Enoch, alongside numerous other texts discovered in the caves, is recognized for its substantial variance from Rabbinic Judaism.[5] Authors of the New Testament were also familiar with some content of the story.[6] A short section of 1 Enoch is cited in the New Testament Epistle of Jude, Jude 1:14–15, and attributed there to "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" (1 Enoch 60:8), although this section of 1 Enoch is a midrash on Deuteronomy 33:2. Copies of the earlier sections of 1 Enoch were preserved among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[2] The Book of Enoch only survives in its entirety in Ge'ez (Ethiopic) translation. It is part of the biblical canon used by the Ethiopian Jewish community Beta Israel, as well as the Christian Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Other Jewish and Christian groups regard it as non-canonical or non-inspired, but may accept it as having historical or theological interest. Canonicity Main article: Reception of the Book of Enoch in premodernity Judaism Based on the number of copies found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Book of Enoch was widely read during the Second Temple period. Today, the Ethiopic Beta Israel community of Haymanot Jews is the only Jewish group that accepts the Book of Enoch as canonical and still preserves it in its liturgical language of Geʽez, where it plays a central role in worship.[7] Apart from this community, the Book of Enoch was excluded from both the formal canon of the Tanakh and the Septuagint and therefore, also from the writings known today as the Deuterocanon.[8][9] The main reason for Jewish rejection of the book is that it is inconsistent with the teachings of the Torah. From the standpoint of Rabbinic Judaism, the book is considered to be heretical. For example, in 1 Enoch 40:1–10, the angel Phanuel (who is not mentioned elsewhere in scripture) presides over those who repent of sin and are granted eternal life. Some claim that this refers to Jesus Christ, as "Phanuel" translates to "the Face of God".[b] Another reason for the exclusion of the texts might be the textual nature of several early sections of the book that make use of material from the Torah; for example, 1 En 1 is a midrash of Deuteronomy 33.[10][c] The content, particularly detailed descriptions of fallen angels, would also be a reason for rejection from the Hebrew canon at this period – as illustrated by the comments of Trypho the Jew when debating with Justin Martyr on this subject: "The utterances of God are holy, but your expositions are mere contrivances, as is plain from what has been explained by you; nay, even blasphemies, for you assert that angels sinned and revolted from God."[13] Christianity By the fifth century, the Book of Enoch was mostly excluded from Christian biblical canons, and it is now regarded as scripture only by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[14][15][16] References in the New Testament "Enoch, the seventh from Adam" is quoted in Jude 1:14–15: And Enoch also, the seventh from Adam, prophesied of these, saying, Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thousands of his saints, To execute judgment upon all, and to convict all that are ungodly among them of all their ungodly deeds which they have ungodly committed, and of all their hard speeches which ungodly sinners have spoken against him. Compare this with Enoch 1:9, translated from the Ethiopic (found also in Qumran scroll 4Q204=4QEnochc ar, col I 16–18):[17][18] And behold! He cometh with ten thousands of His Saints to execute judgment upon all, and to destroy all the ungodly: And to convict all flesh of all the works of their ungodliness which they have ungodly committed, and of all the hard things which ungodly sinners have spoken against Him. Compare this also with what may be the original source of 1 Enoch 1:9 in Deuteronomy 33:2: In "He cometh with ten thousands of His holy ones" the text reproduces the Masoretic of Deuteronomy 33 in reading אָתָא‎ = ἔρκεται, whereas the three Targums, the Syriac and Vulgate read אִתֹּה‎, = μετ' αὐτοῦ. Here the Septuagint diverges wholly. The reading אתא‎ is recognized as original. The writer of 1–5 therefore used the Hebrew text and presumably wrote in Hebrew.[19][d][e] The Lord came from Sinai and dawned from Seir upon us; he shone forth from Mount Paran; he came from the ten thousands of Saints, with flaming fire at his right hand. Under the heading of canonicity, it is not enough to merely demonstrate that something is quoted. Instead, it is necessary to demonstrate the nature of the quotation.[22] In the case of the Jude 1:14 quotation of 1 Enoch 1:9, it would be difficult to argue that Jude does not quote Enoch as a historical prophet, since he cites Enoch by name. However, there remains a question as to whether the author of Jude attributed the quotation believing the source to be the historical Enoch before the flood or a midrash of Deut 33:2–3.[24][25][26] The Greek text might seem unusual in stating that "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" prophesied "to" (dative case) not "of" (genitive case) the men, however, this Greek grammar might indicate meaning "against them" – the dative τούτοις as a dative of disadvantage (dativus incommodi).[f] Davids (2006)[28] points to Dead Sea Scrolls evidence but leaves it open as to whether Jude viewed 1 Enoch as canon, deuterocanon, or otherwise: "Did Jude, then, consider this scripture to be like Genesis or Isaiah? Certainly he did consider it authoritative, a true word from God. We cannot tell whether he ranked it alongside other prophetic books such as Isaiah and Jeremiah. What we do know is, first, that other Jewish groups, most notably those living in Qumran near the Dead Sea, also used and valued 1 Enoch, but we do not find it grouped with the scriptural scrolls."[28] The attribution "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" is apparently itself a section heading taken from 1 Enoch (1 Enoch 60:8, Jude 1:14a) and not from Genesis.[23][full citation needed] Enoch is referred to directly in the Epistle to the Hebrews. The epistle mentions that Enoch received testimony from God before his translation,(Hebrews 11:5) which may be a reference to 1 Enoch. It has also been alleged that the First Epistle of Peter (1 Peter 3:19–20) and the Second Epistle of Peter (2 Peter 2:4–5) make reference to some Enochian material.[29] Reception Main article: Reception of the book of Enoch in antiquity and Middle Ages The Book of Enoch was considered as scripture in the Epistle of Barnabas (4:3)[30] and by some of the early church Fathers, such as Athenagoras,[31] Clement of Alexandria,[32] and Tertullian,[33] who wrote c. 200 that the Book of Enoch had been rejected by the Jews because it purportedly contained prophecies pertaining to Christ.[34] Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not consider 1 Enoch to be part of its standard canon, although it believes that a purported "original" Book of Enoch was an inspired book.[35] The Mormon Book of Moses, first published in the 1830s, is part of the standard works of the Church, and has a section which claims to contain extracts from the "original" Book of Enoch. This section has many similarities to 1 Enoch and other Enoch texts, including 2 Enoch, 3 Enoch, and The Book of Giants.[36] The Enoch section of the Book of Moses is believed by the Church to contain extracts from "the ministry, teachings, and visions of Enoch", though it does not contain the entire Book of Enoch itself. The Church considers the portions of the other texts which match its Enoch excerpts to be inspired, while not rejecting but withholding judgment on the remainder.[37][38][39] Manuscript tradition Ethiopic The most extensive surviving early manuscripts of the Book of Enoch exist in the Ge'ez language. Robert Henry Charles's critical edition of 1906 subdivides the Ethiopic manuscripts into two families: Family α: thought to be more ancient and more similar to the earlier Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek versions: A – ms. orient. 485 of the British Museum, 16th century, with Jubilees B – ms. orient. 491 of the British Museum, 18th century, with other biblical writings C – ms. of Berlin orient. Petermann II Nachtrag 29, 16th century D – ms. abbadiano 35, 17th century E – ms. abbadiano 55, 16th century F – ms. 9 of the Lago Lair, 15th century Family β: more recent, apparently edited texts G – ms. 23 of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 18th century H – ms. orient. 531 of the Bodleian Library of Oxford, 18th century I – ms. Brace 74 of the Bodleian Library of Oxford, 16th century J – ms. orient. 8822 of the British Museum, 18th century K – ms. property of E. Ullendorff of London, 18th century L – ms. abbadiano 99, 19th century M – ms. orient. 492 of the British Museum, 18th century N – ms. Ethiopian 30 of Munich, 18th century O – ms. orient. 484 of the British Museum, 18th century P – ms. Ethiopian 71 of the Vatican, 18th century Q – ms. orient. 486 of the British Museum, 18th century, lacking chapters 1–60 Additionally, there are the manuscripts[which?] used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church for preparation of the deuterocanonicals from Ge'ez into the targumic Amharic in the bilingual Haile Selassie Amharic Bible (Mashaf qeddus bage'ezenna ba'amaregna yatasafe 4 vols. c. 1935[when?]).[40] Aramaic Eleven Aramaic-language fragments of the Book of Enoch were found in cave 4 of Qumran in 1948[41] and are in the care of the Israel Antiquities Authority. They were translated for and discussed by Józef Milik and Matthew Black in The Books of Enoch.[42] Another translation has been released by Vermes[43][full citation needed] and Garcia-Martinez.[44] Milik described the documents as being white or cream in color, blackened in areas, and made of leather that was smooth, thick and stiff. It was also partly damaged, with the ink blurred and faint. 4Q201 = 4QEnoch a ar, Enoch 2:1–5:6; 6:4–8:1; 8:3–9:3,6–8 4Q202 = 4QEnoch b ar, Enoch 5:9–6:4, 6:7–8:1, 8:2–9:4, 10:8–12, 14:4–6 4Q204 = 4QEnoch c ar, Enoch 1:9–5:1, 6:7, 10:13–19, 12:3, 13:6–14:16, 30:1–32:1, 35, 36:1–4, 106:13–107:2 4Q205 = 4QEnoch d ar; Enoch 89:29–31, 89:43–44 4Q206 = 4QEnoch e ar; Enoch 22:3–7, 28:3–29:2, 31:2–32:3, 88:3, 89:1–6, 89:26–30, 89:31–37 4Q207 = 4QEnoch f ar 4Q208 = 4QEnastr a ar 4Q209 = 4QEnastr b ar; Enoch 79:3–5, 78:17, 79:2 and large fragments that do not correspond to any part of the Ethiopian text 4Q210 = 4QEnastr c ar; Enoch 76:3–10, 76:13–77:4, 78:6–8 4Q211 = 4QEnastr d ar; large fragments that do not correspond to any part of the Ethiopian text 4Q212 = 4QEn g ar; Enoch 91:10, 91:18–19, 92:1–2, 93:2–4, 93:9–10, 91:11–17, 93:11–93:1 Chester Beatty XII, Greek manuscript of the Book of Enoch, 4th century Greek 4th century AD manuscript, with the end of 'The Epistle of Enoch' and the beginning of the Passion homily of 'Melito'; note the large text reading ΕΠΙΣΤΟΛΗ ΕΝΩΧ (EPISTOLĒ ENOCH) The 8th-century work Chronographia Universalis by the Byzantine historian George Syncellus preserved some passages of the Book of Enoch in Greek (6:1–9:4, 15:8–16:1). Other Greek fragments known are: Codex Panopolitanus (Cairo Papyrus 10759), named also Codex Gizeh or Akhmim fragments, consists of fragments of two 6th-century papyri containing portions of chapters 1–32 recovered by a French archeological team at Akhmim in Egypt and published five years later, in 1892. According to Elena Dugan, this Codex was written by two separate scribes and was previously misunderstood as containing errors. She suggests that the first scribe actually preserves a valuable text that is not erroneous. In fact the text preserves "a thoughtful composition, corresponding to the progression of Enoch's life and culminating in an ascent to heaven". The first scribe may have been working earlier, and was possibly unconnected to the second.[45] Vatican Fragments, f. 216v (11th century): including 89:42–49 Chester Beatty Papyri XII : including 97:6–107:3 (less chapter 105) Oxyrhynchus Papyri 2069: including only a few letters, which made the identification uncertain, from 77:7–78:1, 78:1–3, 78:8, 85:10–86:2, 87:1–3 It has been claimed that several small additional fragments in Greek have been found at Qumran (7QEnoch: 7Q4, 7Q8, 7Q10-13), dating about 100 BC, ranging from 98:11? to 103:15[46] and written on papyrus with grid lines, but this identification is highly contested. Portions of 1 Enoch were incorporated into the chronicle of Panodoros (c. 400) and thence borrowed by his contemporary Annianos.[47] Coptic A sixth- or seventh-century fragmentary manuscript contains a Coptic version of the Apocalypse of Weeks. How extensive the Coptic text originally was cannot be known. It agrees with the Aramaic text against the Ethiopic, but was probably derived from Greek.[48] Latin Of the Latin translation, only 1:9 and 106:1–18 are known. The first passage occurs in the Pseudo-Cyprianic Ad Novatianum and the Pseudo-Vigilian Contra Varimadum;[49] the second was discovered in 1893 by M. R. James in an 8th-century manuscript in the British Museum and published in the same year.[50] Syriac The only surviving example of 1 Enoch in Syriac is found in the 12th century Chronicle of Michael the Great. It is a passage from Book VI and is also known from Syncellus and papyrus. Michael's source appears to have been a Syriac translation of (part of) the chronicle of Annianos.[51] History Origins Ephraim Isaac, the editor and translator of 1 Enoch in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, writes that "1 Enoch is clearly composite representing numerous periods and writers". And that the dating of the various sections spans from early pre-Maccabean (i.e. c. 200 BC) to AD 160.[52] George W. E. Nickelsburg writes that "1 Enoch is a collection of Jewish apocalyptic traditions that date from the last three centuries before the common era".[53] Second Temple period Paleographic analysis of the Enochic fragments found in the Qumran caves dates the oldest fragments of the Book of the Watchers to 200–150 BC.[42] Since this work shows evidence of multiple stages of composition, it is probable that this work was already extant in the 3rd century BC.[54] The same can be said about the Astronomical Book.[1] Because of these findings, it was no longer possible to claim that the core of the Book of Enoch was composed in the wake of the Maccabean Revolt as a reaction to Hellenization.[55]: 93  Scholars thus had to look for the origins of the Qumranic sections of 1 Enoch in the previous historical period, and the comparison with traditional material of such a time showed that these sections do not draw exclusively on categories and ideas prominent in the Hebrew Bible. David Jackson speaks even of an "Enochic Judaism" from which the writers of Qumran scrolls were descended.[56] Margaret Barker argues, "Enoch is the writing of a very conservative group whose roots go right back to the time of the First Temple".[57] The main peculiar aspects of this Enochic Judaism include: the idea that evil and impurity on Earth originated as a result of angels that had intercourse with human women and were subsequently expelled from Heaven;[55]: 90  the absence of references to terms of the Mosaic covenant (such as the observance of Shabbat or the rite of circumcision), as found in the Torah;[58]: 50–51  the concept of "End of Days" as the time of final judgment that takes the place of promised earthly rewards;[55]: 92  the rejection of the Second Temple's sacrifices considered impure: according to Enoch 89:73, the Jews, when returned from the exile, "reared up that tower (the temple) and they began again to place a table before the tower, but all the bread on it was polluted and not pure";[citation needed] the presentation of heaven in 1 Enoch 1–36, not in terms of the Jerusalem temple and its priests, but modelling God and his angels on an ancient near eastern or Hellenistic court, with its king and courtiers;[59] a solar calendar in opposition to the lunar calendar used in the Second Temple (a very important aspect for the determination of the dates of religious feasts); an interest in the angelic world that involves life after death.[60] Most Qumran fragments are relatively early, with none written from the last period of the Qumranic experience. Thus, it is probable that the Qumran community gradually lost interest in the Book of Enoch.[61] The relation between 1 Enoch and the Essenes was noted even before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[62] While there is consensus to consider the sections of the Book of Enoch found in Qumran as texts used by the Essenes, the same is not so clear for the Enochic texts not found in Qumran (mainly the Book of Parables): it was proposed[63] to consider these parts as expression of the mainstream, but not-Qumranic, essenic movement. The main peculiar aspects of the not-Qumranic units of 1 Enoch are the following: a Messiah called "Son of Man", with divine attributes, generated before the creation, who will act directly in the final judgment and sit on a throne of glory (1 Enoch 46:1–4, 48:2–7, 69:26–29)[18]: 562–563  the sinners usually seen as the wealthy ones and the just as the oppressed (a theme we find also in the Psalms of Solomon). Early influence Classical rabbinic literature is characterized by near silence concerning Enoch. It seems plausible that rabbinic polemics against Enochic texts and traditions might have led to the loss of these books to Rabbinic Judaism.[64] The Book of Enoch plays an important role in the history of Jewish mysticism: the scholar Gershom Scholem wrote, "The main subjects of the later Merkabah mysticism already occupy a central position in the older esoteric literature, best represented by the Book of Enoch."[65] Particular attention is paid to the detailed description of the throne of God included in chapter 14 of 1 Enoch.[1] For the quotation from the Book of the Watchers in the New Testament Epistle of Jude: 14 And Enoch also, the seventh from Adam, prophesied of these, saying, "Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thousand of His saints 15 to execute judgment upon all, and to convince all who are ungodly among them of all their godless deeds which they have godlessly committed, and of all the harsh speeches which godless sinners have spoken against Him." There is little doubt that 1 Enoch was influential in molding New Testament doctrines about the Messiah, the Son of Man, the messianic kingdom, demonology, the resurrection, and eschatology.[2][4]: 10  The limits of the influence of 1 Enoch are discussed at length by R.H. Charles,[66] Ephraim Isaac,[4] and G.W. Nickelsburg[67] in their respective translations and commentaries. It is possible that the earlier sections of 1 Enoch had direct textual and content influence on many Biblical apocrypha, such as Jubilees, 2 Baruch, 2 Esdras, Apocalypse of Abraham and 2 Enoch, though even in these cases, the connection is typically more branches of a common trunk than direct development.[68] The Greek text was known to, and quoted, both positively and negatively, by many Church Fathers: references can be found in Justin Martyr, Minucius Felix, Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, Hippolytus, Commodianus, Lactantius and Cassian.[69]: 430  After Cassian and before the modern "rediscovery", some excerpts are given in the Byzantine Empire by the 8th-century monk George Syncellus in his chronography, and in the 9th century, it is listed as an apocryphon of the New Testament by Patriarch Nicephorus.[70] Rediscovery Sir Walter Raleigh, in his History of the World (written in 1616 while imprisoned in the Tower of London), makes the curious assertion that part of the Book of Enoch "which contained the course of the stars, their names and motions" had been discovered in Saba (Sheba) in the first century and was thus available to Origen and Tertullian. He attributes this information to Origen,[g] although no such statement is found anywhere in extant versions of Origen.[72] Outside of Ethiopia, the text of the Book of Enoch was considered lost until the beginning of the seventeenth century, when it was confidently asserted that the book was found in an Ethiopic (Ge'ez) language translation there, and Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc bought a book that was claimed to be identical to the one quoted by the Epistle of Jude and the Church Fathers. Hiob Ludolf, the great Ethiopic scholar of the 17th and 18th centuries, soon claimed it to be a forgery produced by Abba Bahaila Michael.[73] Better success was achieved by the famous Scottish traveller James Bruce, who, in 1773, returned to Europe from six years in Abyssinia with three copies of a Ge'ez version.[74] One is preserved in the Bodleian Library, another was presented to the royal library of France, while the third was kept by Bruce. The copies remained unused until the 19th century; Silvestre de Sacy, in "Notices sur le livre d'Enoch",[75] included extracts of the books with Latin translations (Enoch chapters 1, 2, 5–16, 22, and 32). From this a German translation was made by Rink in 1801.[citation needed] The first English translation of the Bodleian / Ethiopic manuscript was published in 1821 by Richard Laurence.[76] Revised editions appeared in 1833, 1838, and 1842. In 1838, Laurence also released the first Ethiopic text of 1 Enoch published in the West, under the title: Libri Enoch Prophetae Versio Aethiopica. The text, divided into 105 chapters, was soon considered unreliable as it was the transcription of a single Ethiopic manuscript.[77] In 1833, Professor Andreas Gottlieb Hoffmann of the University of Jena released a German translation, based on Laurence's work, called Das Buch Henoch in vollständiger Uebersetzung, mit fortlaufendem Kommentar, ausführlicher Einleitung und erläuternden Excursen. Two other translations came out around the same time: one in 1836 called Enoch Restitutus, or an Attempt (Rev. Edward Murray) and one in 1840 called Prophetae veteres Pseudepigraphi, partim ex Abyssinico vel Hebraico sermonibus Latine bersi (A. F. Gfrörer). However, both are considered to be poor—the 1836 translation most of all—and is discussed in Hoffmann.[78][full citation needed] The first critical edition, based on five manuscripts, appeared in 1851 as Liber Henoch, Aethiopice, ad quinque codicum fidem editus, cum variis lectionibus, by August Dillmann. It was followed in 1853 by a German translation of the book by the same author with commentary titled Das Buch Henoch, übersetzt und erklärt. It was considered the standard edition of 1 Enoch until the work of Charles.[citation needed] The generation of Enoch scholarship from 1890 to World War I was dominated by Robert Henry Charles. His 1893 translation and commentary of the Ethiopic text already represented an important advancement, as it was based on ten additional manuscripts. In 1906 R.H. Charles published a new critical edition of the Ethiopic text, using 23 Ethiopic manuscripts and all available sources at his time. The English translation of the reconstructed text appeared in 1912, and the same year in his collection of The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament.[2] The publication, in the early 1950s, of the first Aramaic fragments of 1 Enoch among the Dead Sea Scrolls profoundly changed the study of the document, as it provided evidence of its antiquity and original text. The official edition of all Enoch fragments appeared in 1976, by Jozef Milik.[79][2] The renewed interest in 1 Enoch spawned a number of other translations: in Hebrew (A. Kahana, 1956), Danish (Hammershaimb, 1956), Italian (Fusella, 1981), Spanish (1982), French (Caquot, 1984) and other modern languages. In 1978 a new edition of the Ethiopic text was edited by Michael Knibb, with an English translation, while a new commentary appeared in 1985 by Matthew Black.[citation needed] In 2001 George W.E. Nickelsburg published the first volume of a comprehensive commentary on 1 Enoch in the Hermeneia series.[58] Since the year 2000, the Enoch seminar has devoted several meetings to the Enoch literature and has become the center of a lively debate concerning the hypothesis that the Enoch literature attests the presence of an autonomous non-Mosaic tradition of dissent in Second Temple Judaism.[citation needed] Synopsis The first part of the Book of Enoch describes the fall of the Watchers, the angels who fathered the angel-human hybrids called Nephilim.[1] The remainder of the book describes Enoch's revelations and his visits to heaven in the form of travels, visions, and dreams.[2] The book consists of five quite distinct major sections (see each section for details):[1] The Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36) The Book of Parables of Enoch (1 Enoch 37–71) (also called the Similitudes of Enoch) The Astronomical Book (1 Enoch 72–82) (also called the Book of the Heavenly Luminaries or Book of Luminaries) The Book of Dream Visions (1 Enoch 83–90) (also called the Book of Dreams) The Epistle of Enoch (1 Enoch 91–108) Most scholars believe that these five sections were originally independent works[80] (with different dates of composition), themselves a product of much editorial arrangement, and were only later redacted into what is now called 1 Enoch.[2] The Book of the Watchers This first section of the Book of Enoch describes the fall of the Watchers, the angels who fathered the Nephilim (cf. the bene Elohim, Genesis 6:1–4) and narrates the travels of Enoch in the heavens. This section is said to have been composed in the 4th or 3rd century BC according to Western scholars.[81] Contents 1–5. Parable of Enoch on the Future Lot of the Wicked and the Righteous. 6–11. The Fall of the Angels: the Demoralization of Mankind: the Intercession of the Angels on behalf of Mankind. The Dooms pronounced by God on the Angels of the Messianic Kingdom. 12–16. Dream-Vision of Enoch: his Intercession for Azazel and the fallen angels: and his Announcement of their first and final Doom. 17–36. Enoch's Journeys through the Earth and Sheol: Enoch also traveled through a portal shaped as a triangle to heaven[citation needed]. 17–19. The First Journey. 20. Names and Functions of the Seven Archangels. 21. Preliminary and final Place of Punishment of the fallen Angels (stars). 22. Sheol or the Underworld. 23. The fire that deals with the Luminaries of Heaven. 24–25. The Seven Mountains in the North-West and the Tree of Life. 26. Jerusalem and the Mountains, Ravines, and Streams. 27. The Purpose of the Accursed Valley. 28–33. Further Journey to the East. 34–35. Enoch's Journey to the North. 36. The Journey to the South. Description The introduction to the book of Enoch tells us that Enoch is "a righteous man, whose eyes were opened by God, saw the vision of the Holy One in the heavens, which the angels showed me, and from them I heard everything, and from them I understood as I saw, but not for this generation, but for a remote one which is for to come"[82] It discusses God coming to Earth on Mount Sinai with His hosts to pass judgment on mankind. It also tells us about the luminaries rising and setting in the order and in their own time and never change:[83] "Observe and see how (in the winter) all the trees seem as though they had withered and shed all their leaves, except fourteen trees, which do not lose their foliage but retain the old foliage from two to three years till the new comes."[84] The book also discusses how all things are ordained by God and take place in his own time. The sinners shall perish and the great and the good shall live on in light, joy and peace.[citation needed] And all His works go on thus from year to year for ever, and all the tasks which they accomplish for Him, and their tasks change not, but according as God hath ordained so is it done. The first section of the book depicts the interaction of the fallen angels with mankind; Sêmîazâz compels the other 199 fallen angels to take human wives to "beget us children". And Semjâzâ, who was their leader, said unto them: "I fear ye will not indeed agree to do this deed, and I alone shall have to pay the penalty of a great sin." And they all answered him and said: "Let us all swear an oath, and all bind ourselves by mutual imprecations not to abandon this plan but to do this thing." Then swore they all together and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it. And they were in all two hundred; who descended in the days of Jared on the summit of Mount Hermon, and they called it Mount Hermon, because they had sworn and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it. The names of the leaders are given as "Samyaza (Shemyazaz), their leader, Araqiel, Râmêêl, Kokabiel, Tamiel, Ramiel, Dânêl, Chazaqiel, Baraqiel, Asael, Armaros, Batariel, Bezaliel, Ananiel, Zaqiel, Shamsiel, Satariel, Turiel, Yomiel, Sariel." This results in the creation of the Nephilim (Genesis) or Anakim / Anak (giants) as they are described in the book: And they became pregnant, and they bare great giants, whose height was three hundred ells:[h] Who consumed all the acquisitions of men. And when men could no longer sustain them, the giants turned against them and devoured mankind. And they began to sin against birds, and beasts, and reptiles, and fish, and to devour one another's flesh, and drink the blood. It also discusses the teaching of humans by the fallen angels, chiefly Azâzêl: And Azâzêl taught men to make swords, and knives, and shields, and breastplates, and made known to them the metals of the earth and the art of working them, and bracelets, and ornaments, and the use of antimony, and the beautifying of the eyelids, and all kinds of costly stones, and all colouring tinctures. And there arose much godlessness, and they committed fornication, and they were led astray, and became corrupt in all their ways. Semjâzâ taught enchantments, and root-cuttings, Armârôs the resolving of enchantments, Barâqîjâl, taught astrology, Kôkabêl the constellations, Ezêqêêl the knowledge of the clouds, Araqiêl the signs of the earth, Shamsiêl the signs of the sun, and Sariêl the course of the moon. Michael, Uriel, Raphael, and Gabriel appeal to God to judge the inhabitants of the world and the fallen angels.[85] Uriel is then sent by God to tell Noah of the coming cataclysm and what he needs to do.[2] Then said the Most High, the Holy and Great One spoke, and sent Uriel to the son of Lamech, and said to him: Go to Noah and tell him in my name "Hide thyself!" and reveal to him the end that is approaching: that the whole earth will be destroyed, and a deluge is about to come upon the whole earth, and will destroy all that is on it. And now instruct him that he may escape and his seed may be preserved for all the generations of the world. God commands Raphael to imprison Azâzêl: [T]he Lord said to Raphael: "Bind Azâzêl hand and foot, and cast him into the darkness: And make an opening in the desert, which is in Dûdâêl (God's kettle / crucible / cauldron), and cast him therein. And place upon him rough and jagged rocks, and cover him with darkness, and let him abide there for ever, and cover his face that he may not see light. And on the day of the great judgement he shall be cast into the fire. And heal the earth which the angels have corrupted, and proclaim the healing of the earth, that they may heal the plague, and that all the children of men may not perish through all the secret things that the Watchers have disclosed and have taught their sons. And the whole earth has been corrupted through the works that were taught by Azâzêl: To him ascribe all sin." God gave Gabriel instructions concerning the Nephilim and the imprisonment of the fallen angels: And to Gabriel said the Lord: "Proceed against the biters and the reprobates, and against the children of fornication: and destroy [the children of fornication and] the children of the Watchers from amongst men [and cause them to go forth]: send them one against the other that they may destroy each other in battle ..." Some,[citation needed] including R.H. Charles, suggest that "biters" should read "bastards", but the name is so unusual that some[citation needed] believe that the implication that is made by the reading of "biters" is more or less correct. The Lord commands Michael to bind the fallen angels. And the Lord said unto Michael: "Go, bind Semjâzâ and his associates who have united themselves with women so as to have defiled themselves with them in all their uncleanness. 12. And when their sons have slain one another, and they have seen the destruction of their beloved ones, bind them fast for seventy generations in the valleys of the earth, till the day of their judgement and of their consummation, till the judgement that is for ever and ever is consummated. 13. In those days they shall be led off to the abyss of fire: (and) to the torment and the prison in which they shall be confined for ever. And whosoever shall be condemned and destroyed will from thenceforth be bound together with them to the end of all generations. ..." Book of Parables See also: Metatron Chapters 37–71 of the Book of Enoch are referred to as the 'Book of Parables'. The scholarly debate centers on these chapters. The Book of Parables appears to be based on the Book of the Watchers, but presents a later development of the idea of final judgment and of eschatology, concerned not only with the destiny of the fallen angels but also that of the evil kings of the earth. The Book of Parables uses the expression Son of Man for the eschatological protagonist, who is also called "Righteous One", "Chosen One", and "Messiah", and sits on the throne of glory in the final judgment.[86] The first known use of The Son of Man as a definite title in Jewish writings is in 1 Enoch, and its use may have played a role in the early Christian understanding and use of the title.[1][2][87] It has been suggested that the Book of Parables, in its entirety, is a later addition. Pointing to similarities with the Sibylline Oracles and other earlier works, in 1976, J.T. Milik dated the Book of Parables to the third century. He believed that the events in the parables were linked to historic events dating from 260–270 ad.[88] According to this theory, these chapters were written in later Christian times by a Jewish Christian, to enhance Christian beliefs with Enoch's authoritative name.[1][2] Knibb[89] followed Milik's[90] reasoning, and suggested that because no fragments of chapters 37–71 were found at Qumran, a later date was likely. Knibb would continue this line of reasoning in later works.[91][92]: 417  In addition to being missing from Qumran, Chapters 37–71 are also missing from the Greek translation.[92]: 417  Currently no firm consensus has been reached among scholars as to the date of the writing of the Book of Parables. Milik's date of as late as 270 ad, however, has been rejected by most scholars. David W. Suter suggests that there is a tendency to date the Book of Parables to between 50 bc – 117 ad.[92]: 415–416  In 1893, R. Charles judged Chapter 71 to be a later addition. He later changed his opinion[93]: 1  and give an early date for the work between 94–64 bc.[94]: LIV  The 1906 article by Emil G. Hirsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia states that Son of Man is found in the Book of Enoch, but never in the original material. It occurs in the "Noachian interpolations" (lx. 10, lxxi. 14), in which it has clearly no other meaning than 'man'.[95] The author of the work mis-uses or corrupts the titles of the angels.[94]: 16  Charles views the title Son of Man, as found in the Book of Parables, as referring to a supernatural person, a Messiah who is not of human descent.[94]: 306–309  In that part of the Book of Enoch known as the Similitudes, it has the technical sense of a supernatural Messiah and judge of the world (xlvi. 2, xlviii. 2, lxx. 27); universal dominion and preexistence are predicated of him (xlviii. 2, lxvii. 6). He sits on God's throne (xlv. 3, li. 3), which is his own throne. Though Charles does not admit it, according to Emil G. Hirsch these passages betray Christian redaction and emendation.[95] Many scholars[citation needed] have suggested that passages in the Book of Parables are Noachian interpolations. These passages seem to interrupt the flow of the narrative. Darrell D. Hannah suggests that these passages are not, in total, novel interpolations, but rather derived from an earlier Noah apocryphon. He believes that some interpolations refer to Herod the Great and should be dated to around 4 bc.[92]: 472–477  In addition to the theory of Noachian interpolations, which perhaps a majority of scholars support, most scholars currently believe that Chapters 70–71 are a later addition in part or in whole.[92]: 76 [92]: 472–473 [96] Chapter 69 ends with, "This is the third parable of Enoch." Like Elijah, Enoch is generally thought to have been brought up to Heaven by God while still alive, but some have suggested that the text refers to Enoch as having died a natural death and ascending to Heaven. The Son of Man is identified with Enoch. The text implies that Enoch had previously been enthroned in heaven.[97] Chapters 70–71 seem to contradict passages earlier in the parable where the Son of Man is a separate entity. The parable also switches from third person singular to first person singular.[96] James H. Charlesworth rejects the theory that chapters 70–71 are later additions. He believes that no additions were made to the Book of Parables.[92]: 450–468 [93]: 1–12  In his earlier work, the implication is that a majority of scholars agreed with him.[98] Contents 37. Superscription and Introduction 38–44. The First Parable 38. The Coming Judgment of the Wicked. 39. The Abode of the Righteous and the Elect One: the Praises of the Blessed. 40. The Four Archangels. 41.1–2. Anticipation of Judgment 41.3–9. Astronomical Secrets. 42. The Dwelling-places of Wisdom and of Unrighteousness. 43–44. Astronomical Secrets. 45–57. The Second Parable 45. The Lot of the Apostates: the New Heaven and the New Earth. 46. The Ancient of Days and the Son of Man. 47. The Prayer of the Righteous for Vengeance and their Joy at its coming. 48. The Fount of Righteousness: the Son of Man - the Stay of the Righteous: Judgment of the Kings and the Mighty. 49. The Power and Wisdom of the Elect One. 50. The Glorification and Victory of the Righteous: the Repentance of the Gentiles. 51. The Resurrection of the Dead, and the Separation by the Judge of the Righteous and the Wicked. 52. The Six Metal Mountains and the Elect One. 53–54.6. The Valley of Judgment: the Angels of Punishment: the Communities of the Elect One. 54.7.–55.2. Noachic Fragment on the first World Judgment. 55.3.–56.4. Final Judgment of Azazel, the Watchers and their children. 56.5–8. Last Struggle of the Heathen Powers against Israel. 57. The Return from the Dispersion. 58–69. The Third Parable 58. The Blessedness of the Saints. 59. The Lights and the Thunder. 60. Quaking of the Heaven: Behemoth and Leviathan: the Elements. 61. Angels go off to measure Paradise: the Judgment of the Righteous by the Elect One: the Praise of the Elect One and of God. 62. Judgment of the Kings and the Mighty: Blessedness of the Righteous. 63. The unavailing Repentance of the Kings and the Mighty. 64. Vision of the Fallen Angels in the Place of Punishment. 65. Enoch foretells to Noah the Deluge and his own Preservation. 66. The Angels of the Waters bidden to hold them in Check. 67. God's Promise to Noah: Places of Punishment of the Angels and of the Kings. 68. Michael and Raphael astonished at the Severity of the Judgment. 69. The Names and Functions of the (fallen Angels and) Satans: the secret Oath. 70–71. Concluding Appendices 70. The Final Translation of Enoch. 71. Two earlier Visions of Enoch. The Astronomical Book Main article: Enoch calendar Correspondence of weekly day in the Qumran year[99] Months 1, 4, 7, 10 Months 2, 5, 8, 11 Months 3, 6, 9, 12 Wed 1 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 4 11 18 25 Thurs 2 9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 5 12 19 26 Fri 3 10 17 24 1 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 Sat (Sabbath) 4 11 18 25 2 9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 Sun 5 12 19 26 3 10 17 24 1 8 15 22 29 Mon 6 13 20 27 4 11 18 25 2 9 16 23 30 Tues 7 14 21 28 5 12 19 26 3 10 17 24 31 Four fragmentary editions of the Astronomical Book were found at Qumran, 4Q208-211.[100] 4Q208 and 4Q209 have been dated to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, providing a terminus ante quem for the Astronomical Book of the 3rd century BC.[101] The fragments found in Qumran also include material not contained in the later versions of the Book of Enoch.[99][101][102] This book contains descriptions of the movement of heavenly bodies and of the firmament, as a knowledge revealed to Enoch in his trips to Heaven guided by Uriel, and it describes a Solar calendar that was later described also in the Book of Jubilees which was used by the Dead Sea sect. The use of this calendar made it impossible to celebrate the festivals simultaneously with the Temple of Jerusalem.[1] The year was composed from 364 days, divided in four equal seasons of ninety-one days each. Each season was composed of three equal months of thirty days, plus an extra day at the end of the third month. The whole year was thus composed of exactly fifty-two weeks, and every calendar day occurred always on the same day of the week. Each year and each season started always on Wednesday, which was the fourth day of the creation narrated in Genesis, the day when the lights in the sky, the seasons, the days and the years were created.[99]: 94–95  It is not known how they used to reconcile this calendar with the tropical year of 365.24 days (at least seven suggestions have been made), and it is not even sure if they felt the need to adjust it.[99]: 125–140  Contents 72. The Sun 73. The Moon and its Phases 74. The Lunar Year 76. The Twelve Winds and their Portals 77. The Four Quarters of the World: the Seven Mountains, the Seven Rivers, Seven Great Islands 78. The Sun and Moon: the Waxing and Waning of the Moon 79–80.1. Recapitulation of several of the Laws 80.2–8. Perversion of Nature and the heavenly Bodies due to the Sin of Men 81. The Heavenly Tablets and the Mission of Enoch 82. Charge given to Enoch: the four Intercalary days: the Stars which lead the Seasons and the Months The Dream Visions The Book of Dream Visions, containing a vision of a history of Israel all the way down to what the majority have interpreted as the Maccabean Revolt, is dated by most to Maccabean times (about 163–142 BC). Contents 83–84. First Dream Vision on the Deluge. 85–90. Second Dream Vision of Enoch: the History of the World to the Founding of the Messianic Kingdom. 86. The Fall of the Angels and the Demoralization of Mankind. 87. The Advent of the Seven Archangels. 88. The Punishment of the Fallen Angels by the Archangels. 89.1–9. The Deluge and the Deliverance of Noah. 89.10–27. From the Death of Noah to The Exodus. 89.28–40. Israel in the Desert, the Giving of the Law, the Entrance into Canaan. 89.41–50. From the Time of the Judges to the Building of the Temple. 89.51–67. The Two Kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the Destruction of Jerusalem. 89.68–71. First Period of the Angelic Rulers – from the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Return from Captivity. 89.72–77. Second Period – from the Time of Cyrus to that of Alexander the Great. 90.1–5. Third Period – from Alexander the Great to the Graeco-Syrian Domination. 90.6–12. Fourth Period Graeco-Syrian Domination to the Maccabean Revolt (debated). 90.13–19. The last Assault of the Gentiles on the Jews (where vv. 13–15 and 16–18 are doublets). 90.20–27. Judgment of the Fallen Angels, the Shepherds, and the Apostates. 90.28–42. The New Jerusalem, the Conversion of the surviving Gentiles, the Resurrection of the Righteous, the Messiah. Enoch awakes and weeps. Animal Apocalypse The second dream vision in this section of the Book of Enoch is an allegorical account of the history of Israel, that uses animals to represent human beings and human beings to represent angels.[1] One of several hypothetical reconstructions of the meanings in the dream is as follows based on the works of R. H. Charles and G. H. Schodde: White color for moral purity; Black color for sin and contamination of the fallen angels; Red color for blood in reference to martyrdom White bull is Adam; Female heifer is Eve; Red calf is Abel; Black calf is Cain; White calf is Seth; White bull / man is Noah; White bull is Shem; Red bull is Ham, son of Noah; Black bull is Japheth; Lord of the sheep is God; Fallen star is either Samyaza or Azazel; Elephants are Giants; Camels are Nephilim; Asses are Elioud; Sheep are the faithful; Rams are leaders; Herds are the tribes of Israel; Wild Asses are Ishmael, and his descendants including the Midianites; Wild Boars are Esau and his descendants, Edom and Amalek; Bears (Hyenas/Wolves in Ethiopic) are the Egyptians; Dogs are Philistines; Lions and Tigers are Assyrians and Babylonians; Hyenas are Assyrians; Ravens (Crows) are Seleucids (Syrians); Kites are Ptolemies; Eagles are possibly Macedonians; Foxes are Ammonites and Moabites; Description This subsection includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this subsection by introducing more precise citations. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) There are a great many links between the first book and this one, including the outline of the story and the imprisonment of the leaders and destruction of the Nephilim. The dream includes sections relating to the Book of the Watchers: And those seventy shepherds were judged and found guilty, and they were cast into that fiery abyss. And I saw at that time how a like abyss was opened in the midst of the earth, full of fire, and they brought those blinded sheep. (The fall of the evil ones) And all the oxen feared them and were affrighted at them, and began to bite with their teeth and to devour, and to gore with their horns. And they began, moreover, to devour those oxen; and behold all the children of the earth began to tremble and quake before them and to flee from them. (The creation of the Nephilim et al.) 86:4, 87:3, 88:2, and 89:6 all describe the types of Nephilim that are created during the times described in The Book of the Watchers, though this doesn't mean that the authors of both books are the same. Similar references exist in Jubilees 7:21–22. The book describes their release from the Ark along with three bulls – white, red, and black, which are Shem, Ham, and Japheth – in 89:9. It also covers the death of Noah, described as the white bull, and the creation of many nations: And they began to bring forth beasts of the field and birds, so that there arose different genera: lions, tigers, wolves, dogs, hyenas, wild boars, foxes, squirrels, swine, falcons, vultures, kites, eagles, and ravens (89:10) It then describes the story of Moses and Aaron (89:13–15), including the miracle of the river splitting in two for them to pass, and the creation of the stone commandments. Eventually they arrived at a "pleasant and glorious land" (89:40) where they were attacked by dogs (Philistines), foxes (Ammonites, Moabites), and wild boars (Esau). And that sheep whose eyes were opened saw that ram, which was amongst the sheep, till it forsook its glory and began to butt those sheep, and trampled upon them, and behaved itself unseemly. And the Lord of the sheep sent the lamb to another lamb and raised it to being a ram and leader of the sheep instead of that ram which had forsaken its glory. (David replacing Saul as leader of Israel) It describes the creation of Solomon's Temple and also the house which may be the tabernacle: "And that house became great and broad, and it was built for those sheep: (and) a tower lofty and great was built on the house for the Lord of the sheep, and that house was low, but the tower was elevated and lofty, and the Lord of the sheep stood on that tower and they offered a full table before Him". This interpretation is accepted by Dillmann (p. 262), Vernes (p. 89), and Schodde (p. 107). It also describes the escape of Elijah the prophet; in 1 Kings 17:2–24, he is fed by "ravens", so if Kings uses a similar analogy, he may have been fed by the Seleucids. "... saw the Lord of the sheep how He wrought much slaughter amongst them in their herds until those sheep invited that slaughter and betrayed His place." This describes the various tribes of Israel "inviting" in other nations "betraying his place" (i.e., the land promised to their ancestors by God). This part of the book can be taken to be the kingdom splitting into the northern and southern tribes, that is, Israel and Judah, eventually leading to Israel falling to the Assyrians in 721 BC and Judah falling to the Babylonians a little over a century later 587 BC. "And He gave them over into the hands of the lions and tigers, and wolves and hyenas, and into the hand of the foxes, and to all the wild beasts, and those wild beasts began to tear in pieces those sheep"; God abandons Israel for they have forsaken him. There is also mention of 59 of 70 shepherds with their own seasons; there seems to be some debate on the meaning of this section, some suggesting that it is a reference to the 70 appointed times in 25:11, 9:2, and 1:12. Another interpretation is the 70 weeks in Daniel 9:24. However, the general interpretation is that these are simply angels. This section of the book and another section near the end describe the appointment by God of the 70 angels to protect the Israelites from enduring too much harm from the "beasts and birds". The later section (110:14) describes how the 70 angels are judged for causing more harm to Israel than he desired, found guilty, and "cast into an abyss, full of fire and flaming, and full of pillars of fire." "And the lions and tigers eat and devoured the greater part of those sheep, and the wild boars eat along with them; and they burnt that tower and demolished that house"; this represents the sacking of Solomon's temple and the tabernacle in Jerusalem by the Babylonians as they take Judah in 587–586 BC, exiling the remaining Jews. "And forthwith I saw how the shepherds pastured for twelve hours, and behold three of those sheep turned back and came and entered and began to build up all that had fallen down of that house". "Cyrus allowed Sheshbazzar, a prince from the tribe of Judah, to bring the Jews from Babylon back to Jerusalem. Jews were allowed to return with the Temple vessels that the Babylonians had taken. Construction of the Second Temple began"; this represents the history of ancient Israel and Judah; the temple was completed in 515 BC. The first part of the next section of the book seems, according to Western scholars, to clearly describe the Maccabean revolt of 167 BC against the Seleucids. The following two quotes have been altered from their original form to make the hypothetical meanings of the animal names clear. And I saw in the vision how the (Seleucids) flew upon those (faithful) and took one of those lambs, and dashed the sheep in pieces and devoured them. And I saw till horns grew upon those lambs, and the (Seleucids) cast down their horns; and I saw till there sprouted a great horn of one of those (faithful), and their eyes were opened. And it looked at them and their eyes opened, and it cried to the sheep, and the rams saw it and all ran to it. And notwithstanding all this those (Macedonians) and vultures and (Seleucids) and (Ptolemies) still kept tearing the sheep and swooping down upon them and devouring them: still the sheep remained silent, but the rams lamented and cried out. And those (Seleucids) fought and battled with it and sought to lay low its horn, but they had no power over it. (109:8–12) All the (Macedonians) and vultures and (Seleucids) and (Ptolemies) were gathered together, and there came with them all the sheep of the field, yea, they all came together, and helped each other to break that horn of the ram. (110:16) According to this theory, the first sentence most likely refers to the death of High Priest Onias III, whose murder is described in 1 Maccabees 3:33–35 (died c. 171 BC). The "great horn" clearly is not Mattathias, the initiator of the rebellion, as he dies a natural death, described in 1 Maccabees 2:49. It is also not Alexander the Great, as the great horn is interpreted as a warrior who has fought the Macedonians, Seleucids, and Ptolemies. Judas Maccabeus (167 BC–160 BC) fought all three of these, with a large number of victories against the Seleucids over a great period of time; "they had no power over it". He is also described as "one great horn among six others on the head of a lamb", possibly referring to Maccabeus's five brothers and Mattathias. If taken in context of the history from Maccabeus's time, Dillman Chrest Aethiop says the explanation of Verse 13 can be found in 1 Maccabees iii 7; vi. 52; v.; 2 Maccabees vi. 8 sqq., 13, 14; 1 Maccabees vii 41, 42; and 2 Maccabees x v, 8 sqq. Maccabeus was eventually killed by the Seleucids at the Battle of Elasa, where he faced "twenty thousand foot soldiers and two thousand cavalry". At one time, it was believed this passage might refer to John Hyrcanus; the only reason for this was that the time between Alexander the Great and John Maccabeus was too short. However, it has been asserted that evidence shows that this section does indeed discuss Maccabeus. It then describes: "And I saw till a great sword was given to the sheep, and the sheep proceeded against all the beasts of the field to slay them, and all the beasts and the birds of the heaven fled before their face." This might be simply the "power of God": God was with them to avenge the death. It may also be Jonathan Apphus taking over command of the rebels to battle on after the death of Judas. John Hyrcanus (Hyrcanus I, Hasmonean dynasty) may also make an appearance; the passage "And all that had been destroyed and dispersed, and all the beasts of the field, and all the birds of the heaven, assembled in that house, and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced with great joy because they were all good and had returned to His house" may describe John's reign as a time of great peace and prosperity. Certain scholars also claim Alexander Jannaeus of Judaea is alluded to in this book. The end of the book describes the new Jerusalem, culminating in the birth of a Messiah: And I saw that a white bull was born, with large horns and all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the air feared him and made petition to him all the time. And I saw till all their generations were transformed, and they all became white bulls; and the first among them became a lamb, and that lamb became a great animal and had great black horns on its head; and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced over it and over all the oxen. Still another interpretation, which has just as much as credibility, is that the last chapters of this section simply refer to the infamous battle of Armageddon, where all of the nations of the world march against Israel; this interpretation is supported by the War Scroll, which describes what this epic battle may be like, according to the group(s) that existed at Qumran. The Epistle of Enoch Some scholars [who?] propose a date somewhere between 170 BC and the 1st century BC. This section can be seen as being made up of five subsections,[103] mixed by the final redactor: Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10, 91:11–17): this subsection, usually dated to the first half of the 2nd century BC, narrates the history of the world using a structure of ten periods (said "weeks"), of which seven regard the past and three regard future events (the final judgment). The climax is in the seventh part of the tenth week where "new heaven shall appear" and "there will be many weeks without number for ever, and all shall be in goodness and righteousness".[1] Exhortation (91:1–10, 91:18–19): this short list of exhortations to follow righteousness, said by Enoch to his son Methuselah, looks to be a bridge to next subsection. Epistle (92:1–5, 93:11–105:2): the first part of the epistle describes the wisdom of the Lord, the final reward of the just and the punishment of the evil, and the two separate paths of righteousness and unrighteousness. Then there are six oracles against the sinners, the witness of the whole creation against them, and the assurance of the fate after death. According to Boccaccini[63]: 131–138  the epistle is composed of two layers: a "proto-epistle", with a theology near the deterministic doctrine of the Qumran group, and a slightly later part (94:4–104:6) that points out the personal responsibility of the individual, often describing the sinners as the wealthy and the just as the oppressed (a theme found also in the Book of Parables). Birth of Noah (106–107): this part appears in Qumran fragments separated from the previous text by a blank line, thus appearing to be an appendix. It tells of the deluge and of Noah, who is born already with the appearance of an angel. This text probably derives, as do other small portions of 1 Enoch, from an originally separate book (see Book of Noah), but was arranged by the redactor as direct speech of Enoch himself. Conclusion (108): this second appendix was not found in Qumran and is considered to be the work of the final redactor. It highlights the "generation of light" in opposition to the sinners destined to the darkness. Contents 92, 91.1–10, 18–19. Enoch's Book of Admonition for his Children. 91.1–10, 18–19. Enoch's Admonition to his Children. 93, 91.12–17. The Apocalypse of Weeks. 91.12–17. The Last Three Weeks. 94.1–5. Admonitions to the Righteous. 94.6–11. Woes for the Sinners. 95. Enoch's Grief: fresh Woes against the Sinners. 96. Grounds of Hopefulness for the Righteous: Woes for the Wicked. 97. The Evils in Store for Sinners and the Possessors of Unrighteous Wealth. 98. Self-indulgence of Sinners: Sin originated by Man: all Sin recorded in Heaven: Woes for the Sinners. 99. Woes pronounced on the Godless, the Lawbreakers: evil Plight of Sinners in The Last Days: further Woes. 100. The Sinners destroy each other: Judgment of the Fallen Angels: the Safety of the Righteous: further Woes for the Sinners. 101. Exhortation to the fear of God: all Nature fears Him but not the Sinners. 102. Terrors of the Day of Judgment: the adverse Fortunes of the Righteous on the Earth. 103. Different Destinies of the Righteous and the Sinners: fresh Objections of the Sinners. 104. Assurances given to the Righteous: Admonitions to Sinners and the Falsifiers of the Words of Uprightness. 105. God and the Messiah to dwell with Man. 106–107. (first appendix) Birth of Noah. 108. (second appendix) Conclusion. Names of the fallen angels Some of the fallen angels that are given in 1 Enoch have other names, such as Rameel ('morning of God'), who becomes Azazel, and is also called Gadriel ('wall of God') in Chapter 68. Another example is that Araqiel ('Earth of God') becomes Aretstikapha ('world of distortion') in Chapter 68. Azaz, as in Azazel, means strength, so the name Azazel can refer to 'strength of God'. (This is also a key point in modern thought that Azazel was one of Lucifer’s chief leaders of the revolt against God [1][2] Also important in this identification is the fact that the original name Rameel, is very similar in meaning to the word Lucifer ('Morning Star') which is a common Latin name of Satan in Christianity. Nathaniel Schmidt states "the names of the angels apparently refer to their condition and functions before the fall," and lists the likely meanings of the angels' names in the Book of Enoch, noting that "the great majority of them are Aramaic."[104] The name suffix -el comes from the Hebrew text and the Lord’s name Emmanuel, (see list of names referring to El), and is used in the names of high-ranking angels. The archangels' names all include -el, such as Uriel ('flame of God') and Michael ('who is like God').[105] Gadreel (Hebrew: גדר האל, romanized: Gader ha-el, lit. 'Wall of God') is listed as one of the chiefs of the fallen Watchers. He is said to have been responsible for deceiving Eve.[106][107] Schmidt lists the name as meaning 'the helper of God.'[104] Enoch and contemporary theology Enochic studies have traditionally been historical, focusing on the meanings of the text for its ancient audiences. 1 Enoch counts as Old Testament scripture in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and has played a significant role in its theology, especially via the andemta tradition of interpretation.[108] In 2015 a group of scholars from Ethiopia and other countries held meetings in Ethiopia and the UK to explore the significance of Enoch for contemporary theology. The initial outcome was a collection of essays published in 2017 on various theological topics, including justice, political theology, the environment, the identity of the Son of Man, suffering and evil.[109]

A returning LDS Missionary and family meet Austin Post at the St George Airport in Utah and give him the Book of Mormon before parting.

Original Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLn4qWGgA10 1830's fashion does not get enough love. Like, seriously. It's such a goofy, fun, adorable era for fashion, but it's kind of shoved right in there between two very beloved eras, the Regency period and the Victorian era. The 1830s, also known as the Romantic era, was a very transitional era for fashion, and it's fun to look at how things change and evolve throughout the period. So let's take a little deep dive into the styles of the 1830's! Check out my current 1830's project at this playlist: • Plaid 1830's Dress My 1830's Pinterest Board: / 1830s The Dames a la Mode Tumblr is a great resource for dated plates. Just change the year in the url, and it will turn up a few plates per year: https://damesalamode.tumblr.com/tagge... Want to learn about Regency fashion? Check out this video: • Regency Corsets, and How to Make Rege... Links My instagram: / ladyrebeccafashions Become a Patron! / ladyrebeccafashions Help support my channel on Ko-Fi: http://ko-fi.com/ladyrebeccafashions My Favorite Sewing Tools: https://www.amazon.com/shop/ladyrebec... What I use for filming: https://www.amazon.com/shop/ladyrebec... Business inquiries: theladyrebecca@gmail.com My PO Box: Lady Rebecca Fashions PO Box 695 Auburn, WA 98071 Amazon links are affiliate links. It really helps me out if you use them!

"That's What I Love About Sunday" is a song written by Adam Dorsey and Mark Narmore, and recorded by American country music artist Craig Morgan. It was released in November 2004 as the first single from his album My Kind of Livin'. In early 2005, it became his only number one single, spending four weeks atop the Billboard U.S. Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.[1] In addition, it was the first Number One for any artist on the Broken Bow label, and was declared the number-one song of 2005 according to Billboard. Background "That's What I Love About Sunday" was the first independently distributed single to top the country chart since 2000. The song was also the first independently distributed single to notch a second week at number one since 1977 when the Kendalls spent four weeks at the top with "Heaven's Just a Sin Away."[2] Morgan told Billboard, "What the fans say and what we hear is that I make a big deal out of the little things in life. And that is who I am. It's those little things in life that are important to me. Simple things like the smell of fresh cut grass. That what 'Sunday' was about."[3] Mark Narmore and Adam Dorsey (who happens to be a Baptist minister versus traditional songwriter) wrote the song while meeting at a Chinese restaurant. In an interview with Country Weekly magazine, Narmore said that many of the people mentioned in the song are based on real-life family and friends: "My mother's name is Betty...and the kid that broke the window is based on something that happened when I was about 10 years old." Dorsey adds, "Our best friends at church are the Martins, though they don't have a "mean freckle-faced kid" as mentioned in the song.[4] Content A mid-tempo ballad, "That's What I Love About Sunday" is an ode to typical southern Sunday activities, such as attending church services, fishing, playing a back yard game of football, eating a traditional Sunday dinner, and relaxing with family. Morgan re-recorded the song in 2013 for his greatest hits album The Journey (Livin' Hits) and again in 2023 with Rascal Flatts frontman Gary LeVox. Music video The music video was directed by Shaun Silva and premiered in November 2004. It shows Morgan performing the song in an outdoor field, and various church-goers setting up for a service at the same field, covered with pews. Several face shots of each of the members are also seen, as well as Morgan also singing while playing guitar while seated in one of the pews of the outdoor church.

"Just Another Day in Paradise" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music singer Phil Vassar that reached the top of the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart, becoming Vassar's first Number One as an artist.[1] It was released in June 2000 as the second single from his self-titled debut album. It also peaked at #35 on the Billboard Hot 100 making it a minor crossover hit and is Vassar's highest peaking song on the chart. The song was written by Vassar and Craig Wiseman. Content The song tells the story of a couple raising a family, and dealing with all the mundane domestic distractions, from sour milk and a broken washing machine to a stack of bills. Critical reception Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine, reviewed the song favorably, calling it "a celebration of the joys and challenges of the American family." She goes on to say that Vassar has a "strong, warm voice, and he does so much more than simply sing a song. He injects it with personality and emotion - and he truly brings it to life".[2] Music video The music video was directed by Gerry Wenner, and premiered on CMT on June 29, 2000, during "The CMT Delivery Room". The video shows Vassar filming their family on a camcorder at a house, such as a closeup shot of the eggs, a shot of burnt toast, as well as the mother preparing breakfast for the kids, looking at sour milk, sitting on a broken washing machine, having pizza by candlelight, and the family preparing for bed. Throughout the video, Vassar sings and plays piano on a beach, and singing in a living room, and on the same beach, along with their family spending time on the same beach. At the end of the video, the house is revealed to be a film set on the beach and looks just like a toy, and Vassar is sitting in the kitchen.

"A Little More Country Than That" is a song written by Joey + Rory's Rory Feek, Wynn Varble, and Don Poythress and recorded by American country music artist Easton Corbin. It was released in August 2009 as Corbin's debut single and the first from his self-titled debut album.[1] In April 2010, the song reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, making Corbin the first male solo artist in seven years to send a debut single to that position. The song has also been certified platinum by the RIAA. Content "A Little More Country Than That" is a mid-tempo song featuring accompaniment from acoustic guitar and electric guitar, with fiddle and steel guitar fills. In it, the male narrator lists off various rural themes (such as "catching channel cat") each time saying that he is "a little more country than that."[2] Rory Lee Feek, one-half of the duo Joey + Rory, wrote the song with Don Poythress and Wynn Varble while the three were at a writing retreat held at Mickey Newbury's cabin near Nashville, Tennessee.[2] Poythress began playing a tune on the guitar when Feek suggested the song title "A Little More Country Than That." The song was originally intended to be recorded by Blaine Larsen, but it sat unrecorded for several years before producer Carson Chamberlain heard it and recommended it for Corbin.[2] Music video The music video for the song was directed by Stephen Shepherd and premiered on September 17, 2009. It depicts Corbin singing and playing guitar in rural areas, as well as scenes of him singing in front of a bonfire at a party. Critical reception Karlie Justus of Engine 145 gave the song a positive review, comparing Corbin's vocals to those of George Strait and saying that the song had "organic phrases" and a traditionally country sound.[3] Matt Bjorke of Roughstock also gave the song a favorable review, saying that it was "refreshing" to hear Corbin's neotraditionalist country influences.[4] Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine was somewhat negative, referring to the song as "a slightly more purposeful variation on an interminable series of rote lists of rural-ish points of reference that Nashville's unambitious go-to songwriters have been attempting to pass off as songs for the past few years."[5] Chart performance "A Little More Country Than That" debuted at No. 56 on the US Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the chart week ending August 22, 2009. It also debuted at No. 100 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending January 23, 2010. The song peaked at Number One on the US country charts for the week ending April 3, 2010, its thirty-second week on that chart.[2] It made Corbin the first solo male artist to send a debut single to Number One since Dierks Bentley's "What Was I Thinkin'" in September 2003, and the first country music artist overall to have a number-one debut single since the Zac Brown Band's "Chicken Fried" in December 2008.[6][7]

"Oh! Susanna" is a minstrel song by Stephen Foster (1826–1864), first published in 1848. It is among the most popular American songs ever written. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.[1] Background In 1846, Stephen Foster moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, and became a bookkeeper with his brother's steamship company. While in Cincinnati, Foster wrote "Oh! Susanna", possibly for his men's social club.[2][3] The song was first performed by a local quintet at a concert in Andrews' Eagle Ice Cream Saloon in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on September 11, 1847.[4] It was first published by W. C. Peters & Co. in Cincinnati in 1848.[5] Blackface minstrel troupes performed the work, and, as was common at the time, many registered the song for copyright under their own names. As a result, it was copyrighted and published at least twenty-one times[6] from February 25, 1848, through February 14, 1851.[3] Foster earned just $100 ($2,774 in 2016 dollars[7]) for the song,[8] but its popularity led the publishing firm Firth, Pond & Company to offer him a royalty rate of two cents per copy of sheet music sold,[3] convincing him to become the first fully professional songwriter in the United States.[9][10] The name Susanna may refer to Foster's deceased sister Charlotte, whose middle name was Susannah.[11] Song "Oh! Susanna" (1848) Duration: 3 minutes and 54 seconds.3:54 Stephen Foster's "Oh! Susanna" performed by the United States Navy Concert Band Problems playing this file? See media help. The song blends together a variety of musical traditions. The opening line refers to "a banjo on my knee", but the song takes its beat from the polka, which had just reached the U.S. from Europe.[4][12] Writer and musician Glenn Weiser suggests that the song incorporates elements of two previous compositions, both published in 1846: "Mary Blane", by Billy Whitlock, and "Rose of Alabama", by Silas S. Steele. He points out that the melody of the verse of "Oh! Susanna" resembles that of "Mary Blane", and the opening of the chorus of "Oh! Susanna" is almost identical to that of "Rose of Alabama". Moreover, the story lines of both "Oh! Susanna" and "The Rose of Alabama" involve a lover going from one Deep Southern state to another with his banjo in search of his sweetheart, which suggests that Foster got the inspiration for his lyrics from Steele's song.[13][self-published source] The first two phrases of the melody are based on the major pentatonic scale.[14] Playⓘ The song contains contradictory lines such as "It rain'd all night the day I left, The weather it was dry, The sun so hot I froze to death...", which have been described as "nonsense".[3] It is one of the songs by Foster that use the word "nigger" (others are "Old Uncle Ned" and "Oh! Lemuel", both also among Foster's early works), which appears in the second verse ("De lectric fluid magnified, And kill'd five hundred nigger.").[15] Popularity and adaptations "Oh Susanna, or, - Don't you cry for me", a quickstep version, 1848 The song is one of Stephen Foster's best-known songs,[16] and it also is one of the best-known American songs.[17] No American song had sold more than 5,000 copies before; "Oh! Susanna" sold over 100,000.[18] After its publication, it quickly became known as an "unofficial theme of the Forty-Niners",[16] with new lyrics about traveling to California with a "washpan on my knee".[6] A traditional Pennsylvania Dutch version uses Foster's melody but replaces the lyrics entirely.[19] Notable recordings One of the earliest recordings, using the original racist lyrics, was released by Harry C. Browne in 1916 (Columbia COL A-2218). [citation needed] The song is sung by a band in Wilson (1944) during the 1912 Democratic National Convention.[citation needed] A 1955 novelty recording of the song by The Singing Dogs reached No. 22 on the US Billboard Pop Singles chart,[20] and No. 13 in the UK.[21] Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961).[citation needed] In 1963, The Big 3 recorded Tim Rose's composition "The Banjo Song", which sets Foster's lyrics to a completely new melody.[22] Rose's melody was then used for Shocking Blue's 1969 hit Venus (Shocking Blue song).[23] Neil Young and Crazy Horse covered Rose's version on their 2012 album Americana.[24] A humorous recording of "Oh! Susanna" was the last track on the second album by The Byrds, Turn! Turn! Turn!, in 1965.[25][26] James Taylor also included a version of the song on his second album, Sweet Baby James, in 1970.[27]

Travel Youtuber Drew Binsky brings his opinions to this historical place.

The 1838 Mormon War, was a conflict between Mormons and non-Mormons in Missouri from August to November 1838, the first of the three "Mormon Wars". Some members of the Latter Day Saint movement had begun settling in Jackson County, Missouri in 1831. However, tensions with non-Mormon residents led to episodes of anti-Mormon violence, and Mormons were violently evicted from Jackson County in 1833. The displaced Mormons re-settled in neighboring counties, where tensions and attempts to evict them resumed. Eventually, the Missouri legislature created Caldwell County in 1836 as a sanctuary for Mormon settlement, which became known as the "Caldwell Compromise". Tensions reignited in 1838, when a brawl erupted at an election in Gallatin after some Missourians tried to block the Mormons from voting. In Carroll County, where settlers alleged the Mormons were in violation of the Compromise, a mob laid siege to the town of DeWitt demanding the Mormons' departure. The siege was joined by members of the Missouri Volunteer Militia who had been sent there to disperse the mob and settle the peace. Violence culminated in the Battle of Crooked River in late October, which led to Lilburn Boggs, the Governor of Missouri, issuing the Missouri Executive Order 44, ordering the Mormons to leave Missouri or be killed. On November 1, 1838, the Mormons surrendered at Far West, ending the war. Mormon leaders were accused of treason and sent to Liberty, where they stayed in custody until April, when they were transferred to a Daviess County prison. While traveling to Daviess County, the guards released Joseph Smith and the other Mormon prisoners. After their release, Smith joined with the Mormons who were gathering in Nauvoo, Illinois. During the conflict, 22 people were killed: three Mormons and one non-Mormon at the Battle of Crooked River,[1] one Mormon prisoner fatally injured while in custody,[2] and 17 Mormon civilians at Hawn's Mill.[3] An unknown number of non-combatants died due to exposure and hardship as a result of being expelled from their homes in Missouri.[4] All of the conflicts in the Mormon War occurred in a corridor 100 miles (160 km) to the east and northeast of Kansas City. Background Jackson County, 1831-1833 In the early 1830s, an influx of members of the newly formed Church of Christ, then headquartered in Kirtland, Ohio, began settling in Jackson County, Missouri. These Mormons believed that Independence, Missouri and the surrounding area were to become the "City of Zion", and were directed to purchase as much land as possible in the area. This clashed with the interests of non-Mormon Jackson County settlers.[5][6] The Mormons' cultural and political differences, economic cohesion, and their proselytizing among Native Americans and African-Americans also contributed to growing animosity.[7] Most Latter Day Saints were originally from New England, the Ohio Valley, and Great Britain and, unlike their southern neighbors, generally opposed slavery. Depiction of the Mormon printing press' destruction in Jackson County. Painting by C.C.A Christensen Harassment against the Mormon settlers turned violent in 1833. In October, organized mobs sacked the Mormon storehouse in Independence, destroyed the Mormon's printing press, attacked Mormon settlements in the outskirts of the city, and eventually forcibly expelled the Mormons from Jackson County. These episodes of violence informed the patterns of conflict between the Mormons and other Missouri residents over the course of the Mormon war.[8] The expelled Mormons sought refuge in the neighboring counties, especially in Clay County. Lilburn Boggs, who would be the Governor of Missouri during the 1838 war, was a Jackson County resident and Lieutenant Governor at the time, and was in a position to observe the tactics, as described by one historian: In 1833 Boggs passively saw community leaders and officials sign demands for Mormon withdrawal, and next force a gunbarrel contract to abandon the county before spring planting...anti-Mormon goals were reached in a few simple stages. Executive paralysis permitted terrorism, which forced Mormons to self-defense, which was immediately labeled as an "insurrection", and was put down by the activated militia of the county. Once Latter-day Saints were disarmed, mounted squads visited Mormon settlements with threats and enough beatings and destruction of homes to force flight.[9] Caldwell Compromise, 1836 Despite appeals and legal efforts, the Mormons were unable to regain their lands in Jackson County. The non-Mormons in Jackson refused to allow the Mormons to return and reimbursement for confiscated and damaged property was refused.[10] In 1834, Mormons attempted to effect a return to Jackson County with a quasi-military expedition known as Zion's Camp, but this effort also failed when the governor failed to provide the expected support.[11] Recognizing the need for a more permanent solution, Alexander William Doniphan of the Missouri legislature proposed the creation of a new county specifically for Mormon settlement. In 1836, the Missouri legislature passed a law establishing Caldwell County. Mormons had already begun buying land in the proposed Caldwell County, including areas that were carved off to become parts of Ray and Daviess Counties.[12] The Mormons began establishing the town of Far West as their headquarters within Missouri. This arrangement allowed for a period of relative peace. According to an article in the Elders' Journal – a Latter Day Saint newspaper published in Far West – "The Saints here are at perfect peace with all the surrounding inhabitants, and persecution is not so much as once named among them...". John Corrill, one of the Mormon leaders, remembered: Friendship began to be restored between (the Mormons) and their neighbors, the old prejudices were fast dying away, and they were doing well, until the summer of 1838[13] Portrait of Daniel Dunklin, governor of Missouri in 1832-1836. Compromise breaks down, 1838 In 1837, problems at the church's headquarters in Kirtland, Ohio, centering on the Kirtland Safety Society bank, led to schism. The church relocated in January 1838 from Kirtland to Far West, which became its new headquarters. Mormon settlement increased as hundreds of members from Kirtland and elsewhere poured into Missouri. Mormons established new colonies outside of Caldwell County, including Adam-ondi-Ahman in Daviess County and De Witt in Carroll County.[14] In the eyes of many non-Mormon citizens (including Alexander Doniphan),[15] these settlements outside of Caldwell County were a violation of the compromise.[16] Mormons felt that the compromise only excluded major settlements in Clay County and Ray County, which had substantial population centers, but not the recently colonized Daviess and Carroll counties.[17] The earlier settlers saw expansion of Mormon communities outside of Caldwell County as a political and economic threat.[9] Salt Sermon and Danites Main articles: Salt Sermon and Danite With the Kirtland-based presidency now in control of the Missouri church, a leadership struggle emerged between the arriving and the previously established Missouri church leadership. Many of the oldest and most prominent leaders of the church, including Oliver Cowdery (one of the Three Witnesses and the church's original "second elder"), David Whitmer (another of the Three Witnesses and Stake President of the Missouri Church), John Whitmer, William W. Phelps and others, were excommunicated on allegations of misusing church property and finance amid tense relations between them and Smith.[18][19] A map of Northwestern Missouri in 1838, showing points of conflict in the Mormon War. These "dissenters", as they came to be called, owned a significant amount of land in Caldwell County, much of which was purchased when they were acting as agents for the church.[20] Possession became unclear and the dissenters threatened the church with lawsuits. The presidency responded by urging the dissenters to leave the county, using strong words that the dissenters interpreted as threats. In his famous Salt Sermon, Sidney Rigdon announced that the dissenters were as salt that had lost its savor and that it was the duty of the faithful to cast the dissenters out to be trodden beneath the feet of men.[21][22] At the same time some Mormons, led by Sampson Avard, began to organize a vigilante organization known as the Danites, whose purposes included obeying the church presidency "right or wrong" and expelling the dissenters from Caldwell County.[23] Two days after Rigdon preached his Salt Sermon, 80 prominent Mormons, including Hyrum Smith, signed the so-called Danite Manifesto, which warned the dissenters to "depart or a more fatal calamity shall befall you". On June 19, the dissenters and their families fled to neighboring counties where their complaints fanned anti-Mormon sentiment.[22][24][25] On July 4, Rigdon gave an oration, which was characterized by Mormon historian Brigham Henry Roberts as a "'Declaration of Independence' from all mobs and persecutions".[26] The text of this speech was endorsed by Joseph Smith, who appeared at the event and participated in the raising of a liberty pole.[27] In the speech, Rigdon declared that the Latter-day Saints would no longer be driven from their homes by persecution from without or dissension from within, and that if enemies came again to drive out the Saints, "And that mob that comes on us to disturb us, it shall be between us and them a war of extermination; for we will follow them until the last drop of their blood is spilled; or else they will have to exterminate us, for we will carry the seat of war to their own houses and their own families, and one party or the other shall be utterly destroyed".[22] Timeline of the 1838 Mormon War The Election Day Battle at Gallatin The "Election Day Battle at Gallatin" was a skirmish between Mormon and non-Mormon settlers in the newly formed Daviess County, Missouri, on August 6, 1838.[28][29] William Peniston, a candidate for the state legislature, made disparaging statements about the Mormons, calling them "horse-thieves and robbers", and warned them not to vote in the election.[30][31] Reminding Daviess County residents of the growing electoral power of the Mormon community, Peniston made a speech in Gallatin claiming that if the Missourians "suffer such men as these [Mormons] to vote, you will soon lose your suffrage." Around 200 non-Mormons gathered in Gallatin on election day to prevent Mormons from voting.[32] When about thirty Mormons approached the polling place, a Missourian named Dick Weldon declared that in Clay County the Mormons had not been allowed to vote, "no more than negroes". One of the Mormons present, Samuel Brown, claimed that Peniston's statements were false and then declared his intention to vote. This triggered a brawl between the bystanders.[31] Danites Charge The Mormons were blocked from voting in Gallatin, leading to a brawl At the start of the brawl, Mormon John Butler let out a call, "Oh yes, you Danites, here is a job for us!" which rallied the Mormons and allowed them to drive off their opponents.[32] A number of Missourians left the scene to obtain guns and ammunition and swore that they would "kill all the Saints they could find, or drive them out of Daviess County, sparing neither men, women or children".[30] The crowd dispersed, and the Mormons returned to their homes. The skirmish is often cited as the first serious violence of the war in Missouri. Rumors among both parties spread that there were casualties in the conflict. When Joseph Smith and volunteers rode to Daviess County to assess the situation, they discovered there were no truths to the rumors.[30][32] When the Mormons heard a rumor that Judge Adam Black was gathering a mob near Millport, one hundred armed men, including Joseph Smith, surrounded Black's home. They asked if the rumor was true and demanded that he sign a document disavowing any connection to the vigilance committees. Black refused, but after meeting with Smith, he wrote and signed a document stating that he "is not attached to any mob, nor will attach himself to any such people, and so long as they [the Mormons] will not molest me, I will not molest them."[23][33] Black later confirmed that he had felt threatened by the large number of hostile armed men.[34] The Mormons also visited Sheriff William Morgan and several other leading Daviess County citizens, also forcing some of them to sign statements disavowing any ties to the vigilance committees.[33] At a meeting at Lyman Wight's home between leading Mormons and non-Mormons, both sides agreed not to protect anyone who had broken the law and to surrender all offenders to the authorities. With peace restored, Smith's group returned to Caldwell County.[33] Black and others filed complaints against Smith and the other identifiable Mormon participants. On September 7, Smith and Lyman Wight appeared before Judge Austin A. King to answer the charges. King found that there was sufficient evidence to have the defendants appear before a grand jury on misdemeanor charges.[35] Mormons expelled from De Witt In the spring of 1838, Henry Root, a non-Mormon who was a major land-owner in Carroll County, visited Far West and sold his plots in the mostly vacant town of De Witt to church leaders. De Witt possessed a strategically important location near the intersection of the Grand River and the Missouri River. Two members of the Far West High Council, George M. Hinkle and John Murdock, were sent to take possession of the town and to begin to colonize it.[36][37] On July 30, citizens of Carroll County met in Carrollton to discuss the Mormon colonization of De Witt. The question of whether or not Mormons should be allowed to settle in the county was placed on the August 6 ballot; a heavy majority favored expulsion of the Mormons. A committee sent to De Witt ordered the Latter-day Saints to leave. Hinkle and Murdock refused, citing their right as American citizens to settle where they pleased.[9][38] Sentiment among the anti-Mormon segment of Carroll County's population hardened, and some began to take up arms. On August 19, 1838, Mormon settler Smith Humphrey reports that 100 armed men led by Colonel William Claude Jones took him prisoner for two hours and threatened him and the rest of the Mormon community.[39] Initial reaction by Missourians was mixed. While Mormons were viewed as deluded or worse, many Missourians agreed with the sentiment expressed in the Southern Advocate: By what color of propriety a portion of the people of the State, can organize themselves into a body, independent of the civil power, and contravene the general laws of the land by preventing the free enjoyment of the right of citizenship to another portion of the people, we are at a loss to comprehend.[40] As tensions built in Daviess County, other counties began to respond to Carroll County's request for assistance in expelling the Mormons from their county. Citizens in Saline, Howard, Jackson, Chariton, Ray, and other nearby counties organized vigilance committees sympathetic to the Carroll County expulsion party.[9][41] Some isolated Mormons in outlying areas also came under attack. In Livingston County, a group of armed men forced Asahel Lathrop from his home, where they held his ill wife and children prisoner. Lathrop wrote "I was compeled [sic] to leave my home my house was thronged with a company of armed men consisting of fourteen in number and they abusing my family in allmost [sic] every form that Creturs [sic] in the shape of human Beeings [sic] could invent."[42] After more than a week, a company of armed Mormons assisted Lathrop in rescuing his wife and two of his children (one had died while prisoner). Lathrop's wife and remaining children died shortly after their rescue.[43] On September 20, 1838, about one hundred fifty armed men rode into De Witt and demanded that the Mormons leave within ten days. Hinkle and other Mormon leaders informed the men that they would fight. They also sent a request for assistance to Governor Boggs, noting that the mob had threatened "to exterminate them, without regard to age or sex".[44] On October 1, the mob burned the home and stables of Smith Humphrey.[39] The citizens of De Witt sent non-Mormon Henry Root to appeal to Judge King and General Parks for assistance. Later that day, the Carroll County forces sealed off the town.[44] The besieged town resorted to butchering whatever loose livestock wandered into town in order to avoid starvation while waiting for the militia or the Governor to come to their aid. General Parks arrived with the Ray County militia on October 6, but his order to disperse was ignored by the mob. When his own troops threatened to join the attackers, Parks was forced to withdraw to Daviess County in hopes that the Governor would come to mediate. Parks wrote his superior, General David Rice Atchison, that "a word from his Excellency would have more power to quell this affair than a regiment."[44][45] On October 9, A C Caldwell returned to De Witt to report that the Governor's response was that the "quarrel was between the Mormons and the mob" and that they should fight it out.[44] On October 11, Mormon leaders agreed to abandon the settlement and move to Caldwell County. On the first night of the march out of Carroll County, two Mormon women died. One woman died of exposure, the other (a woman named Jenson) died in childbirth. Several children also became ill during the ordeal and died later.[44][45] Daviess County expedition Part of a series on Mormon Militias Lieutenant General Joseph Smith Addresses the Nauvoo Legion Military Units Conflicts Notable leaders Related Topics vte General David R. Atchison wrote a letter to Governor Lilburn Boggs on October 16, 1838. He stated that General Parks reported to him that "a portion of the men from Carroll County, with one piece of artillery, are on their march for Daviess County, where it is thought the same lawless game is to be played over, and the Mormons to be driven from that county and probably from Caldwell County." Atchison said further, "I would respectfully suggest to your Excellency the propriety of a visit to the scene of excitement in person, or at all events, a strong proclamation" as the only way to restore peace and the rule of law.[46] Boggs, however, ignored this plea and continued to wait as events unravelled.[9] Meanwhile, a group of non-Mormons from Clinton, Platte, and other counties began to harass Mormons in Daviess County, burning outlying homes and plundering property.[9] Latter Day Saint refugees began to flee to Adam-ondi-Ahman for protection and shelter against the upcoming winter. Joseph Smith, returning to Far West from De Witt, was informed by General Doniphan of the deteriorating situation. Doniphan already had troops raised to prevent fighting between Mormons and anti-Mormons in Daviess County. On Sunday, October 14, a small company of state militia under the command of Colonel William A. Dunn of Clay County arrived in Far West. Dunn, acting under the orders of Doniphan, continued on to Adam-ondi-Ahman.[47][48] Although he was sympathetic to the Mormons' plight, Doniphan reminded the Latter-day Saints that the Caldwell County militia could not legally enter Daviess County, and he advised Mormons traveling there to go in small parties and unarmed.[47][49] Ignoring this counsel, Judge Higby, a Mormon judge in Caldwell County called out the Caldwell militia, led by Colonel George M. Hinkle. Although county officials could only legally act within the county, this judge authorized Hinkle to defend Latter-day Saint settlements in neighboring Daviess County.[50] Colonel Hinkle and Mormons of the Caldwell County militia were joined by elements of the Danite organization.[49] On October 18, these Mormons began to act as vigilantes and marched under arms in three groups to Daviess County. Lyman Wight took his army and attacked Millport. David W. Patten, also known as Captain Fearnot, attacked Gallatin. Seymour Brunson attacked Grindstone Fork.[51] The Missourians and their families, outnumbered by the Mormons, made their way to neighboring counties. Having taken control of the Missourian settlements, the Mormons plundered the property and burned the stores and houses. The county seat, Gallatin, is reported to have been "completely gutted" – only one shoe store remained unscathed.[49][52] Millport, Grindstone Fork and the smaller Missourian settlement of Splawn's Ridge were also plundered and had some houses burned.[53] The plundered goods were deposited in the Bishop's storehouse at Diahman.[54] During the days that followed, Latter Day Saint vigilantes under the direction and encouragement of Lyman Wight drove Missourians who lived in outlying farms from their homes, which were similarly plundered and burned.[55] According to one witness, "We could stand in our door and see houses burning every night for over two weeks... the Mormons completely gutted Daviess County. There was scarcely a Missourian's home left standing in the county. Nearly every one was burned."[56] The Missourians evicted from their homes were no better prepared than the Mormon refugees had been. After the stress of being expelled from Millport into the snow, Milford Donaho's wife gave birth prematurely, and the child was severely injured during the birth.[53] Even Missourians who had been friendly to the Mormons were not spared. Jacob Stollings, a Gallatin merchant, was reported to have been generous in selling to Mormons on credit, but his store was plundered and burned with the rest. Judge Josiah Morin and Samuel McBrier, both considered friendly to the Mormons, both fled Daviess County after being threatened. McBrier's house was among those burned.[53] When a Mormon band plundered and burned the Taylor home, one young Mormon, Benjamin F Johnson, argued his fellow vigilantes into leaving a horse for a pregnant Mrs Taylor and her children to ride to safety. Ironically, as a result of his kindness, he was the only Mormon who was positively identified to have participated in the home burnings. After several non-Mormons made statements to the authorities that Johnson had acted as a moderating influence on the Danites, he was allowed to escape rather than stand trial.[57] Many Latter Day Saints were greatly troubled by the occurrences. Mormon leader John Corrill wrote, "the love of pillage grew upon them very fast, for they plundered every kind of property they could get a hold of."[58] Some Latter-day Saints claimed that some of the Missourians burned their own homes in order to blame the Mormons.[59] None of these claims, however, purport to be eyewitness accounts. Overwhelmingly, these claims are contradicted by the majority of both Missourian and Latter Day Saint testimony (which implicate the Mormons in the burnings) and also by the evidence of the looted property found in the possession of Latter Day Saints.[53] Even Mormon leader Parley P Pratt conceded that some burnings had been done by Mormons.[60] Based on the available evidence, LeSueur estimates that Mormons were responsible for the burning of fifty homes or shops and the displacement of one hundred non-Mormon families.[53] Millport, which at time was the largest city in the county and the center for trade, never recovered from the Mormon burnings, and became a ghost town.[61] Local citizens were outraged by the actions of the Danites and other Mormon bands. Several Mormon homes near Millport were burned and their inhabitants expelled into the snow. Agnes Smith, a sister-in-law of Joseph, was chased from her home with two small children when her home was burned. With one child in each arm, she waded across an icy creek to safety in Adam-ondi-Ahman. Nathan Tanner reported that his militia company rescued another woman and three small children who were hiding in the bushes as their home burned. Other Mormons, fearing similar retribution by the Missourians, gathered into Adam-ondi-Ahman for protection.[53] Marsh affidavit Thomas B. Marsh, President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of the church, and fellow Apostle Orson Hyde were alarmed by the events of the Daviess County expedition. On October 19, 1838, the day after Gallatin was burned, Thomas B. Marsh and fellow apostle Orson Hyde left the association of the Church.[62] On October 24, they swore out affidavits concerning the burning and looting in Daviess County. They also reported the existence of the Danite group among the Mormons and repeated a popular rumor that a group of Danites was planning to attack and burn Richmond and Liberty.[63][64] Battle of Crooked River and Mormon Extermination Order Main articles: Battle of Crooked River and Mormon extermination order Map illustrating the Battle of Crooked River. Fearing attack, many citizens of Ray County moved their wives and children across the Missouri River for safety. A Militia under the command of Samuel Bogart was authorized by General Atchison to patrol the no-man's land between Ray and Caldwell Counties known as "Bunkham's Strip" – an unincorporated territory 6 miles (9.7 km) east to west and 1-mile (1.6 km) north to south.[65] Instead of staying in the strip, Bogart passed into southern Caldwell County and began to disarm Mormons. Rumor reached Far West that a Militia unit from Ray County had taken Mormons prisoner and an armed party was quickly assembled to rescue these prisoners and push the Militia out of the county.[66] When the Mormons arrived on the scene, the State Militia unit was camped along Crooked River in the Bunkham's Strip just south of Caldwell County. The Mormons divided into three columns led by David W. Patten, Charles C. Rich, and James Durphee. The Missouri Militia had the advantage of position and fired, but the Mormons continued to advance. The Militia broke ranks and fled across the river. Although Mormons won the battle, they took heavier casualties than the Militia, only one of whom, Moses Rowland, was killed. On the Mormon side, Gideon Carter was killed in the battle and nine other Mormons were wounded, including Patten, who soon after died from his wounds.[67] According to one Mormon witness, the deaths "threw a gloom over the whole place".[68] News of the battle quickly spread and contributed to an all-out panic in northwestern Missouri. Exaggerated initial reports indicated that nearly all of Bogart's company had been killed.[69] Generals Atchison, Doniphon and Parks decided they needed to call out the Militia to "prevent further violence". This is how it was explained in a letter to US Army Colonel R. B. Mason of Ft. Leavenworth: The citizens of Daviess, Carroll, and some other counties have raised mob after mob for the last two months for the purpose of driving a group of Mormons from those counties and from the State.[70] While the State Militia gathered, Missouri unorganized Militia continued to act on their own, driving Mormons inward to Far West and Adam-ondi-Ahman.[71] Meanwhile, exaggerated reports from the Battle of Crooked River made their way to Missouri's governor, Lilburn Boggs. Boggs held strong preconceptions against the Mormons, dating from the time when both he and they had lived in Jackson County. Although he had refrained from stopping the illegal anti-Mormon siege of De Witt, he now mustered 2,500 State Militia to put down the Mormon insurrection against the state. Possibly playing on Rigdon's July 4 sermon that talked of a "war of extermination", Boggs issued Missouri Executive Order 44, also known as the "Extermination Order", on October 27, which stated that "the Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the State if necessary for the public peace..."[72] The Extermination Order was finally rescinded on June 25, 1976, by Governor Christopher Samuel "Kit" Bond.[73][74] Hawn's Mill Massacre Main article: Hawn's Mill Massacre Agitation against the Latter Day Saints had become particularly fierce in the sparsely settled counties north and east of Caldwell County. Mormon dissenters from Daviess County who had fled to Livingston County reportedly told Livingston County militia under Colonel Thomas Jennings that Mormons were gathering at Hawn's Mill to mount a raid into Livingston County.[75] One 19th century Missouri historian noted: The Daviess County men were very bitter against the Mormons, and vowed the direst vengeance on the entire sect. It did not matter whether or not the Mormons at [Haun's] mill had taken any part in the disturbance which had occurred [in Daviess County]; it was enough that they were Mormons. The Livingston men became thoroughly imbued with the same spirit, and were eager for the raid ... feel[ing] an extraordinary sympathy for the outrages suffered by their neighbors[76] Although it had just been issued, it is unlikely that the governor's "Extermination Order" would have already reached these men, and in any event it would not have authorized them to cross into Caldwell County to raid. In addition, none of the participants in the raid cited the order as justification for their actions.[77] On October 29, this large vigilante band of some 250 men assembled and entered eastern Caldwell County. When the Missourian raiders approached the settlement on the afternoon of October 30, some 30 to 40 Latter Day Saint families were living or encamped there. Despite an attempt by the Mormons to parley, the mob attacked. Thomas McBride surrendered his rifle to Jacob Rogers, who shot McBride with his own gun. When McBride held out a hand, Rogers cut it off with a corn knife, then may have further mangled his body while McBride was still alive.[78] Other members of the mob opened fire, which sent the Latter-day Saints fleeing in all directions. Haun's Mill marker While Mormon women and children scattered and hid in the surrounding woods and nearby homes, Mormon men and boys rallied to defend the settlement. They moved into a blacksmith shop, which they hoped to use as a makeshift defensive fortification. Unfortunately, the shop had large gaps between the logs which the Missourians shot into and, as one Mormon later recalled, it became more "slaughter-house rather than a shelter".[79] The mob gave no quarter. After most of the defenders in the blacksmith shop had been killed or mortally wounded, some of the Missourians entered to finish the work. Finding 10-year-old Sardius Smith hiding behind the bellows, William Reynolds of Livingston County shot and killed the boy, saying: "Nits will make lice, and if he had lived he would have become a Mormon"[75] In all, 17 Latter Day Saints were killed in what came to be called the Hawn's Mill Massacre.[3][80] When survivors of the massacre reached Far West, the reports of the savagery of the attack played a significant part in the decision of the Mormons to surrender.[75] None of the Missourians were ever prosecuted for their role in the Hawn's Mill Massacre.[75] Siege of Far West and capture of Mormon leaders Most Mormons gathered to Far West and Adam-ondi-Ahman for protection. Major General Samuel D. Lucas marched the state militia to Far West and laid siege to the Mormon headquarters.[81] Surrounded by the state militia, the mood in besieged Far West was uneasy. Joseph Smith ordered Colonel George M. Hinkle, the head of the Mormon militia in Caldwell County, to ride out and meet with General Lucas to seek terms. According to Hinkle, Smith wanted a treaty with the Missourians "on any terms short of battle".[82] Other Latter Day Saint witnesses remembered that Smith said to "beg like a dog for peace".[83][84][85] Lucas' terms were severe. The Latter-day Saints were to give up their leaders for trial and to surrender all of their arms. Every Mormon who had taken up arms was to sell his property to pay for the damages to Missourian property and for the muster of the state militia. Finally, the Mormons who had taken up arms were to leave the state.[85][86] Colonel Hinkle stated that the Latter Day Saints would help bring to justice those Mormons who had violated the law, but he protested that the other terms were illegal and unconstitutional.[87] Colonel Hinkle rode to the church leaders in Far West and informed them of the offered terms. According to Latter Day Saint witness Reed Peck, when Smith was told that the Mormons would be expected to leave the state, he replied that "he did not care" and that he would be glad to get out of the "damnable state" anyway.[84] Smith and the other leaders rode with Hinkle back to the Missouri militia encampment. The militia promptly arrested Smith and the other leaders.[85] Smith believed that Hinkle had betrayed him,[88] but Hinkle maintained his innocence and claimed that he was following Smith's orders. To William Wines Phelps, a fellow Latter-day Saint and witness to the events, Hinkle wrote: "When the facts were laid before Joseph, did he not say, 'I will go'; and did not the others go with him, and that, too, voluntarily, so far as you and I were concerned?"[89][90] Alexander William Doniphan, the man who refused to execute the Mormon leaders Joseph Smith and the other arrested leaders were held overnight under guard in General Lucas' camp, where they were left exposed to the elements. Hyrum Smith, Brigham Young, and other leaders left at Far West warned the veterans of Crooked River to flee. "If found, they will be shot down like dogs," warned Hyrum.[91] Joseph Smith Jr attempted to negotiate with Lucas, but it became clear that Lucas considered his conditions to be non-negotiable. At 8:00 am, Joseph sent word to Far West to surrender.[90] Ebenezer Robinson described the scene at Far West, General Clark made the following speech to the brethren on the public square: "... The orders of the governor to me were, that you should be exterminated, and not allowed to remain in the state, and had your leaders not been given up, and the terms of the treaty complied with, before this, you and your families would have been destroyed and your houses in ashes."[92] The Far West militia was marched out of the city and forced to turn over their weapons to General Lucas. The men under the command of Lucas were then allowed to ransack the city to search for weapons.[93] Brigham Young recounts that, once the militia was disarmed, Lucas's men were turned loose on the city: [T]hey commenced their ravages by plundering the citizens of their bedding, clothing, money, wearing apparel, and every thing of value they could lay their hands upon, and also attempting to violate the chastity of the women in sight of their husbands and friends, under the pretence of hunting for prisoners and arms. The soldiers shot down our oxen, cows, hogs and fowls, at our own doors, taking part away and leaving the rest to rot in the streets. The soldiers also turned their horses into our fields of corn.[94][95] Trials of Mormon leaders Lucas tried Joseph Smith and other Mormon leaders by court martial on November 1, the evening of the surrender. After the court martial, he ordered General Alexander William Doniphan: You will take Joseph Smith and the other prisoners into the public square of Far West and shoot them at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning.[96] Doniphan refused to obey the order, replying: It is cold-blooded murder. I will not obey your order. My brigade shall march for Liberty to-morrow morning, at 8 o'clock, and if you execute those men, I will hold you responsible before an earthly tribunal, so help me God![97] Liberty Jail by C.C.A Christensen The defendants, consisting of about 60 men including Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon, were turned over to a civil court of inquiry in Richmond under Judge Austin A. King, on charges of treason, murder, arson, burglary, robbery, larceny and perjury.[9][98] The court of inquiry began November 12, 1838. After the inquiry, all but a few of the Mormon prisoners were released, but Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon, Lyman Wight, Caleb Baldwin, Hyrum Smith and Alexander McRae were held in the Liberty Jail in Liberty, Clay County on charges of treason against the state, murder, arson, burglary, robbery and larceny.[98][99] During a transfer to another prison in the spring of 1839, Smith escaped. The exact circumstances that allowed for him to escape are not certain. John Whitmer recounts that Smith bribed the guards.[100] It is also believed that Smith's imprisonment had become an embarrassment, and that an escape would be convenient for Boggs and the rest of the Missouri political establishment.[101] Smith and the other Mormons resettled in Nauvoo, Illinois, beginning in 1839.[101] Daviess County residents were outraged by the escape of Smith and the other leaders. William Bowman, one of the guards, was dragged by his hair across the town square. Sheriff Morgan was ridden through town on an iron bar, and died shortly afterward from the injuries he suffered during the ride.[102] Aftermath General Clark viewed Executive Order 44 as having been fulfilled by the agreement of the Mormons to evacuate the state the following spring.[103] The militia was disbanded in late November.[9] Missouri blamed the Mormons for the conflict and forced the Mormons to sign over all their lands in order to pay for the state militia muster. Mormon leaders appealed to the state legislature to overturn the requirement that they leave the state, but the legislature tabled the issue until a date well after that when the Mormons would have left the state.[9] With the refusal of the Governor or Legislature to intervene, and having surrendered the bulk of their firearms, Mormons were left nearly defenseless to face the mob.[104] Mormon residents were harassed and attacked by angry residents who were no longer restrained by militia officers.[105][106] Judge Austin A King, who had been assigned the cases of the Mormons charged with offenses during the conflict, warned "If you once think to plant crops or to occupy your lands any longer than the first of April, the citizens will be upon you: they will kill you every one, men, women and children."[9] Flight of Mormons to Illinois Stripped of their property, the Mormons were then given a few months to leave the state. Most refugees made their way east to Illinois, where residents of the town of Quincy helped them. When faced with the Mormon refugees from Missouri, the people of Quincy, Illinois, were outraged by the treatment the Mormons had experienced.[107] One resolution passed by the Quincy town council read: Resolved: That the gov of Missouri, in refusing protection to this class of people when pressed upon by an heartless mob, and turning upon them a band of unprincipled Militia, with orders encouraging their extermination, has brought a lasting disgrace upon the state over which he presides.[108] Eventually, the large portion of the Mormons regrouped and founded a new city in Illinois which they called Nauvoo. Political fallout When events in Daviess County caused Missourians to see the Mormon community as a violent threat, non-Mormon public opinion hardened in favor of a firm military response. Even militia commanders such as Clark, Doniphan, and Atchison who were sympathetic to the Mormons came to see a military response as the only way to bring the situation under control.[70] David Rice Atchison, later a U.S. Senator, was a militia General assigned to quell violence on both sides. He became a vocal critic of the governor's handling of the conflict, calling the Extermination Order a "disgrace". Many of Boggs's constituents felt that he had mis-managed the situation, by failing to intervene earlier in the crisis, and then by overreacting on the basis of partial and incorrect information. The Missouri Argus published an editorial on December 20, 1838, that public opinion should not permit the Mormons to forcibly be expelled from the state: They cannot be driven beyond the limits of the state—that is certain. To do so, would be to act with extreme cruelty. Public opinion has recoiled from a summary and forcible removal of our negro population;—much more likely will it be to revolt at the violent expulsion of two or three thousand souls, who have so many ties to connect them with us in a common brotherhood. If they choose to remain, we must be content. The day has gone by when masses of men can be outlawed, and driven from society to the wilderness, unprotected. ... The refinement, the charity of our age, will not brook it.[109] Even people who otherwise would have had no sympathy for the Mormons were appalled by Boggs's Executive Order and the treatment of the Mormons by the mobs. One contemporary critic of the Mormons wrote: Mormonism is a monstrous evil; and the only place where it ever did or ever could shine, this side of the world of despair, is by the side of the Missouri mob.[110][111] LeSueur notes that, along with other setbacks, Boggs's mishandling of the Mormon conflict left him "politically impotent" by the end of his term.[112] Boggs assassination attempt Main article: Attempted assassination of Lilburn Boggs On May 6, 1842, Boggs was shot in the head at his home three blocks from Temple Lot.[113] Boggs survived, but Mormons came under immediate suspicion especially of the alleged failed assassination attempt by Orrin Porter Rockwell of the Mormon Danites. Sheriff J.H. Reynolds discovered a revolver at the scene, still loaded with buckshot. He surmised that the perpetrator had fired upon Boggs and lost his firearm in the night when the weapon recoiled due to its unusually large shot. The gun was found to have been stolen from a local shopkeeper, who identified "that hired man of Ward's" as the most likely culprit. Reynolds determined the man in question was Porter Rockwell, a close associate of Joseph Smith. However, Reynolds was unable to capture Rockwell. Lilburn Boggs' assassination attempt site John C. Bennett, a disaffected Mormon, reported that Smith had offered a cash reward to anyone who would assassinate Boggs, and that Smith had admitted to him that Rockwell had done the deed.[114] Joseph Smith vehemently denied Bennett's account, speculating that Boggs—no longer governor, but campaigning for state senate—was attacked by an election opponent. One historian notes that Governor Boggs was running for election against several violent men, all capable of the deed, and that there was no particular reason to suspect Rockwell of the crime.[115] Other historians are convinced that Rockwell was involved in the shooting.[116] Whatever the case, the following year Rockwell was arrested, tried, and acquitted of the attempted murder,[114] although most of Boggs' contemporaries remained convinced of his guilt. A grand jury was unable to find sufficient evidence to indict him, convinced in part by his reputation as a deadly gunman and his statement that he "never shot at anybody, if I shoot they get shot!... He's still alive, ain't he?"[117]

Ralph Stanley was a renowned American bluegrass musician, and his music has left a lasting impact. Here are a couple of songs related to green pastures: “Going Up Home To Live In Green Pastures” is a beautiful track by Ralph Stanley. It reflects the hope of reaching a heavenly home where there are green pastures. The lyrics convey the idea that even the Lord will be among those who have found their eternal rest in that heavenly place

Life's a Dance is the debut studio album by American country music singer John Michael Montgomery, released on October 13, 1992, by Atlantic Records. It features the singles "Life's a Dance", "Beer and Bones" and "I Love the Way You Love Me", which peaked at Nos. 4, 21, and 1, respectively, on the Billboard country charts between 1992 and 1993. The album has been certified 3× Platinum by the RIAA for shipments of three million copies in the United States. "Takin' Off the Edge" was later recorded by Kevin Denney on his 2002 self-titled debut album. "Dream On Texas Ladies" was originally recorded by Rex Allen Jr. on his 1984 album On the Move and had a Top 20 hit with this song.

Album: Lifeline Iris Luella DeMent (born January 5, 1961)[1] is an American singer-songwriter and musician. DeMent's musical style includes elements of folk, country and gospel. She has been nominated for a Grammy Award twice. Early life DeMent was born in Paragould, Arkansas,[2] the 14th and youngest child of Pat DeMent (1910–1992) and wife Flora Mae (1918–2011).[3] Iris's mother had harbored dreams of going to Nashville and starting a singing career. Although she put those plans on hold to get married, her singing voice was an inspiration and influence for her youngest daughter Iris.[4] DeMent was raised in a Pentecostal household. Her family moved from Arkansas to the Los Angeles area when she was three. While growing up, she was exposed to and influenced by country and gospel music.[5] Singing at age five as one of "the little DeMent sisters", Iris had a bad experience when she forgot her words during her first performance, which caused her to avoid performing in public for some time.[4] Music and career DeMent was inspired to write her first song, "Our Town," at age 25 by a drive through a boarded-up Midwest town.[4] The song lyrics came to her "exactly as it is now," with no need for re-writing, and she realized then that songwriting was her calling.[4] "Our Town" was played during the closing scene for the final episode (July 26, 1995) of CBS's television series Northern Exposure. The song has been recorded by Kate Rusby, Kate Brislin & Jody Stecher and Trampled by Turtles. Her first album, Infamous Angel, was released in 1992 on the Rounder-Philo label and explored such themes as religious skepticism, small-town life, and human frailty. "Let the Mystery Be" has been covered by a number of artists, including 10,000 Maniacs (whose 'Unplugged' version featured Talking Heads' David Byrne), as well as Alice Stuart. It was also used in the opening scenes of the film Little Buddha. In the fall of 2015, a version of "Let the Mystery Be" from the Transatlantic Sessions became the musical theme for the opening credits of the HBO series The Leftovers, replacing the original "Main Title Theme" composed by Max Richter, and it would once again serve as the opening theme for the series finale. In her second album, My Life, released in 1994, she continued the personal and introspective approach. The record is dedicated to her father, who died two years earlier. My Life was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best Contemporary Folk Album category.[6] DeMent's third album, The Way I Should, was released in 1996. Featuring the protest song "Wasteland of the Free", it is DeMent's most political work. It covers topics such as sexual abuse, religion, government policy, and Vietnam.[7] DeMent sang the duet "Bell Bottomed Tear" as part of The Beautiful South's Much Later with Jools live special in 1997. [8] In 1998, the song "Iris" by the rock band Goo Goo Dolls was named after her. Singer and songwriter John Rzeznik had already written the lyrics to the song but was having a problem naming it. He opened up the LA Weekly and noticed that DeMent was playing in town and thought her name was beautiful and then decided to name it after her.[9] Iris DeMent at Old Settler's Music Festival – Driftwood, Texas, 2007 She sang four duets with John Prine on his 1999 album In Spite of Ourselves, including the title track.[10] She appeared in the 2000 film Songcatcher, playing the character Rose Gentry and singing on the soundtrack as well. Her duet with Ralph Stanley on "Ridin' That Midnight Train" was the opening track on his 2001 album, Clinch Mountain Sweethearts: Ralph Stanley & Friends.[11] In 2004 she released Lifeline, an album of gospel songs. It included 12 covers and one original composition ("He Reached Down").[12] It was the first album she released on Flariella Records, a label she started herself and named after her mother.[13] A shortened version of her rendition of "Leaning on the Everlasting Arms" was later used in the closing credits of the Coen brothers' film True Grit. On October 2, 2012, DeMent released her first album of original songs in 16 years, Sing the Delta.[14] DeMent has sung duets with Steve Earle and Emmylou Harris and is featured on the albums of many other performers. She sang the Merle Haggard song "Big City" on Tulare Dust: A Songwriters' Tribute to Merle Haggard. She has made frequent appearances on Garrison Keillor's radio show A Prairie Home Companion. DeMent contributed harmony vocals to "Pallbearer", a song from country artist Josh Turner's 2012 album Punching Bag. [15] In 2015, DeMent released The Trackless Woods, an album based upon and inspired by the words of Russian poet Anna Akhmatova, on her own Flariella record label. She reunited with John Prine in 2016 for his second duets album For Better, or Worse and performed on two tracks. DeMent received the Americana Trailblazer Award at the 2017 Americana Music Honors & Awards. DeMent's 2023 album Workin' on a World was No. 4 on Robert Christgau's Dean's List for that year.[16] Personal life DeMent was married to Elmer McCall in 1991. The marriage ended in divorce in 1999.[17] She married singer-songwriter Greg Brown on November 21, 2002. They live in rural southeast Iowa with their daughter, whom they adopted at 6 years old in 2005 from Russia.[18][19]

"A Better Man" is a song by American country music artist Clint Black. It was released in February 1989 as his debut single, and was served as the first single from his debut album, Killin' Time. It was written by Black and Hayden Nicholas. When "A Better Man" went to No. 1 on the Billboard magazine Hot Country Singles chart on June 10, Black was the first artist since Freddy Fender to ascend to the top of the country chart with his first charted single.[1] In addition, "A Better Man" was the No. 1 song of 1989 on the Hot Country Singles chart.[2] The success of "A Better Man," along with the follow-up "Killin' Time," were instrumental in Black winning the Country Music Association's Horizon Award in 1989.[3] Content The song is a reflection on a relationship co-writer Black had recently ended with a girlfriend of seven years. He shared his dying romance story with friend Hayden Nicholas, who - after sharing an idea for the melody - came up with the hook line ("I'm leaving here a better man/For knowing you this way.").[4] Music video This was Clint Black's first music video; it was directed by Bill Young and premiered in early 1989. Much of the video is of Black driving down a little-used country road in a late-1950s Ford F-100 pickup truck, reflecting on his now-failed relationship. Interspersed are clips of Black performing the song before people dancing to the song.

Jim Charlesworth is a professor convinced that a large number of the Dead Sea Scrolls have yet to come to light, and that he, like a modern-day Indiana Jones can track them down. He is not alone in his quest. Other scroll hunters, archaeologists, scholars and scientists, share his conviction. For those who deal in scrolls, or deal in the secrets that they hold, the story is far from over.

The Key of Solomon (Latin: Clavicula Salomonis; Hebrew: מַפְתֵּחַ-שְׁלֹמֹה, romanized: Map̄teḥ Šəlomo), also known as The Greater Key of Solomon, is a pseudepigraphical grimoire attributed to King Solomon. It probably dates back to the 14th or 15th century Italian Renaissance. It presents a typical example of Renaissance magic.[citation needed] It is possible that the Key of Solomon inspired later works, particularly the 17th-century grimoire also known as The Lesser Key of Solomon or Lemegeton, although there are many differences between the books.[citation needed] Manuscripts and textual history Many such grimoires attributed to King Solomon were written during the Renaissance, ultimately being influenced by earlier works of Jewish theosophical kabbala and Muslim magicians.[1] These, in turn, incorporated aspects of the Greco-Roman magic of late antiquity.[2] Several versions of the Key of Solomon exist, in various translations, with minor to significant differences. The original type of text was probably a Latin or Italian text dating to the 14th or 15th century.[3] Most surviving manuscripts date from the late 16th, 17th or 18th century. There is also an early Greek manuscript dating to the 15th century (British Library, Harley MS 5596) that is closely associated with the text.[citation needed] The Greek manuscript is referred to as The Magical Treatise of Solomon, and was published by Armand Delatte in Anecdota Atheniensia (Liège, 1927, pp. 397–445.) Its contents are very similar to the Clavicula. An important Italian manuscript is (Bodleian Library, Michael MS 276) an early Latin text survives in printed form, dated to ca. 1600 (University of Wisconsin-Madison, Memorial Library, Special Collections). There are a number of later (17th century) Latin manuscripts. One of the oldest existing manuscripts (besides Harley MS 5596) is a text in English translation, entitled The Clavicle of Solomon, revealed by Ptolomy the Grecian and dated to 1572 (British Library, Sloane MS 3847). There are a number of French manuscripts, all dated to the 18th century, with the exception of one dated to 1641 (P1641, ed. Dumas, 1980). A group of pentacles from the Hebrew manuscript (BL Oriental 14759, fol. 35a) A Hebrew text survives in two versions, one kept at the British Library, on a parchment manuscript, separated in BL Oriental MSS 6360 and 14759. The BL manuscript was dated to the 16th century by its first editor Greenup (1912), but is now thought to be somewhat younger, dating to the 17th or 18th century.[4] The discovery of a second Hebrew text in the library of Samuel H. Gollancz was published by his son Hermann Gollancz in 1903, who also published a facsimile edition in 1914.[5] Gollancz's manuscript had been copied in Amsterdam, in the Sephardic cursive Solitreo script, and is less legible than the BL text. The Hebrew text is not considered the original. It is rather a late Jewish adaptation of a Latin or Italian Clavicula text. The BL manuscript is probably the archetype of the Hebrew translation, and Gollancz's manuscript a copy of the BL one.[4] A French edition titled La véritable Magie Noire ou Le secret des secrets (The True Black Magic or The secret of secrets) is kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. It is a translation from Hebrew by Iroé-Grego, dated 1750.[6] An English edition based on the manuscripts of the British Library was published by S. L. MacGregor Mathers in 1889.[7] L. W. de Laurence in 1914 published The Greater Key of Solomon, directly based on Mathers' edition, to which he made alterations in an attempt to advertise his mail-order business (for example by inserting instructions like "after burning one-half teaspoonful of Temple Incense" along with ordering information for the incense). Contents This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Key of Solomon" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Summary The Key of Solomon is divided into two books. It describes the necessary drawings to prepare each "experiment" or, in more modern language, magical operations. Unlike later grimoires such as the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (16th century) or the Lemegeton (17th century), the Key of Solomon does not mention the signature of the 72 spirits constrained by King Solomon in a bronze vessel. As in most medieval grimoires, all magical operations are ostensibly performed through the power of God, to whom all the invocations are addressed. Before any of these operations (termed "experiments"), the operator must confess his sins and purge himself of evil, invoking the protection of God. Elaborate preparations are necessary, and each of the numerous items used in the operator's "experiments" must be constructed of the appropriate materials obtained in the prescribed manner, at the appropriate astrological time, marked with a specific set of magical symbols, and blessed with its own specific words. All substances needed for the magic drawings and amulets are detailed, as well as the means to purify and prepare them. Many of the symbols incorporate the Transitus Fluvii occult alphabet. Introduction According to the mythical history of the document, as recorded in its introduction, Solomon wrote the book for his son Rehoboam, and commanded him to hide the book in his sepulchre upon his death. After many years the book was discovered by a group of Babylonian philosophers repairing Solomon's tomb. None could interpret the text, until one of them, Iohé Grevis, suggested that they should ask the Lord for understanding. The Angel of the Lord appeared to him and extracted a promise that he would keep the text hidden from the unworthy and the wicked, after which he was able to read it plainly. Iohé Grevis then placed a spell on the book that the unworthy, the unwise or those who did not fear God would not attain the desired effect from any of the workings contained in the book. Book I Book I contains conjurations, invocations, and curses to summon and constrain spirits of the dead and demons in order to compel them to do the operator's will. It also describes how to find stolen items, become invisible, gain favour and love, and so on. Book II Book II describes various purifications which the operator (termed "exorcist") should undergo, how they should clothe themselves, how the magical implements used in their operations should be constructed, and what animal sacrifices should be made to the spirits. Cultural references The book is mentioned in Goethe’s Faust I, in the scene where the poodle transforms himself into the devil Mephistopheles.[8] For such as your half-hellish crew – The Key of Solomon will do. The Key of Solomon is mentioned in H.P. Lovecraft's "Supernatural Horror in Literature", where Lovecraft says it "illustrates the power of the weird over the Eastern mind". Along with Johannes Kepler’s Astronomia Nova, the Key of Solomon is one of two real-world texts the fictional character Dr. Stephen Strange returns to the Kamar-Taj library in the Marvel Studios film Doctor Strange. In the scene, Kamar-Taj Librarian and current Marvel Cinematic Universe Sorcerer Supreme Wong reads the titles Strange is returning. [9] “The Book of the Invisible Sun, Astronomia Nova, Codex Imperium, Key of Solomon. You finished all of these?” English translations The Key of Solomon the King (Clavicula Salomonis). Trans. and ed. S. Liddell MacGregor Mathers [1889]. Foreword by R. A. Gilbert. Boston/York Beach, ME: Weiser Books, 2000. The Veritable Key of Solomon. Translated by Stephen Skinner and David Rankine, Llewellyn Publications, 2008.

The Oath is a 2023 American historical action adventure romance[1] film written by Michelle Scott[2] and Darin Scott, directed by Darin Scott and starring Darin Scott, Nora Dale, Karina Lombard, Eugene Brave Rock and Billy Zane. It is based on the short film Reign of Judges: Title of Liberty.[3] Cast Darin Scott as Moroni Billy Zane as King Aaron Nora Dale as Bathsheba Eugene Brave Rock as Cohor Karina Lombard as Mahigana Wase Chief as King's Wife Philip Niu as Assassin 1 Aron Stevens as Assassin 2 Release In October 2023, it was announced that Allen Media Group acquired North American distribution rights to the film, which was released in theaters on December 8, 2023 and on digital and VOD on March 26, 2024.[2] Reception The film has a 30% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 10 reviews.[4]

Under the Banner of Heaven: A Story of Violent Faith is a nonfiction book by author Jon Krakauer, first published in July 2003. He investigated and juxtaposed two histories: the origin and evolution of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and a modern double murder committed in the name of God by brothers Ron and Dan Lafferty, who subscribed to a fundamentalist version of Mormonism. The Laffertys were formerly members of a splinter group called the School of Prophets, led by Robert C. Crossfield (also known by his prophet name Onias). The group accepts many beliefs of the original LDS church at the time when it ceased the practice of polygamy in the 1890s, but it does not identify with those who call themselves fundamentalist Mormons. The book examines the ideologies of both the LDS Church and the fundamentalist Mormon polygamous groups, such as the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church). The book was adapted as a limited series of the same name that began airing in April 2022 on FX on Hulu. Synopsis Murders The book opens with news accounts of the 1984 murder of Brenda Lafferty and her infant daughter Erica. Brenda was married to Allen Lafferty, the youngest of the Lafferty brothers. His older brothers Dan and Ron disapproved of their sister-in-law Brenda because they believed she was the reason Dan's wife left him (after refusing to allow him to marry a plural/second wife—his stepdaughters). Both men's extremism reached new heights when they became members of the School of the Prophets, founded and led by Robert C. Crossfield. After joining this group, Ron claimed that God had sent him revelations about Brenda. Communication with God is a core belief of fundamentalist Mormonism, as well as the mainstream LDS Church.[1] Ron showed the members of the School of Prophets a written "removal revelation" that allegedly called for the killing of Brenda and her baby. After other members of the School failed to honor Ron's removal revelation, the brothers quit the School. Dan claimed that he slit both of the victims' throats. But, at the 2001 trial, Chip Carnes, who was riding in the getaway car, testified that Ron said that he had killed Brenda,[2] and that Ron had thanked his brother for "doing the baby". After the murders, the police found the written "revelation" concerning Brenda and Erica. The press widely reported that Ron had received a revelation to kill the mother and child. Afterward, the Lafferty brothers conducted a recorded press conference at which Ron said that the "revelation" was not addressed to him, but to "Todd" [a drifter whom Ron had befriended while working in Wichita] and that the revelation called only for "removal" of Brenda and her baby, and did not use the word "kill". The jury at Ron's trial was shown these remarks of Ron denying he had received a revelation to kill Brenda and Erica.[3] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints history After opening with the Lafferty case, Krakauer explores the history of Mormonism, starting with the early life of Joseph Smith, founder and first prophet of the Latter Day Saint movement. He follows his life from a criminal fraud trial to leading the first followers to Jackson County, Missouri, and Nauvoo, Illinois. While violence seemed to accompany the Mormons, Krakauer notes that they did not necessarily initiate it. Early Mormons faced religious persecution from mainstream Protestant Christians, due to their unorthodox beliefs, including polygamy and ongoing revelation from God through living prophets. In addition they tended to conduct business and personal relations only with other members of their community. There were violent clashes between Mormons and non-Mormons, culminating in Smith's death on June 27, 1844, when a mob shot him after attacking him in Carthage Jail, where he was awaiting trial for inciting a riot after ordering, as Nauvoo's mayor, in conjunction with the City Council, the destruction of the printing press of the Nauvoo Expositor, a local publication which had been declared a public nuisance.[4] From Nauvoo, the Mormons trekked westward to modern-day Utah, led by Smith's successor Brigham Young (after some controversy). Arriving in what they called Deseret, many Mormons believed they would be left alone by the United States government, as the territory was then part of Mexico. Soon after their arrival, the Mexican–American War occurred, with Mexico's eventual defeat. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed on February 2, 1848, this land and the rest of what would become the American Southwest were ceded to the United States. Smith's highly controversial revelation of plural marriage threatened to split apart followers of the faith. The Utah Territory was a theodemocracy led by Brigham Young as Governor, where polygamy continued to be practiced for 43 years. Finally, on September 23, 1890, Wilford Woodruff, the fourth president of the Church, claimed to have received a revelation from God (known as the 1890 Manifesto) which officially banned polygamy. Six years later, Utah was granted statehood.[5] After the Manifesto, some members broke away from the mainstream church to form what eventually became the FLDS Church, the most popular group of fundamentalist Mormonism. The FLDS Church continues to encourage polygamy, as do some other breakaway groups. Comparisons Krakauer examines events in Latter Day Saint history and compares them to modern-day FLDS doctrine (and other minority versions of Mormonism, such as the Crossfield School of the Prophets). He examines the 1857 Mountain Meadows massacre during the Utah War, in which Mormons and some local Paiute Indians rounded up and murdered approximately 120 members of the Baker–Fancher party of emigrants passing through their territory. These early self-proclaimed mormons went to great lengths to conceal their part in the massacre (including dressing as the Paiute and painting their faces in similar fashion). The Civil War interrupted investigations of the events, and no one was indicted until 1874, when nine men were charged. For nearly two decades the falsehood held that the massacre was due solely to the Paiute. The only person ever convicted in the affair was John D. Lee, a former member of the LDS Church. He was convicted and executed by the state in 1877 for his role in the crime. Krakauer cites information gleaned from several interviews with Dan Lafferty and former and current members of the Crossfield School of the Prophets, as well as other fundamentalist Mormons. He refers to several histories about the formation of Mormonism to tie the origins of the religion to the modern iterations of both the church and the fundamentalists.[6] Derivation of the title The title of the book is drawn from an 1880 address by John Taylor, the third president of the LDS Church, defending the practice of plural marriage: God is greater than the United States, and when the Government conflicts with heaven, we will be ranged under the banner of heaven against the Government. The United States says we cannot marry more than one wife. God says different.[7] Reception Charles Graeber of The Guardian listed the book in his top ten true crime books, and described Krakauer as "a master journalist and storyteller who is unfettered and unafraid of the true crime mantle. [He] pries open the golden doors to one of the newest and fastest-growing religions in America to set the stage for the non-fiction drama."[8] In advance of the book's release in 2003, Richard E. Turley, managing director of the Church History Department of the LDS Church, argued that the book contained historical errors and incorrect assertions, and showed "unfamiliarity with basic aspects" of the Church's history, theology and administrative structure, and criticized the work for lacking a "scientific methodology". He accused Krakauer of "condemn[ing] religion generally".[9] In his 2004 paperback edition of the book, Krakauer responded to these allegations, noting that Turley's pre-emptive "response" preceded the book's release, and that LDS leaders had explicitly advocated the whitewashing of LDS history, amongst other points.[10] Mike Otterson, managing director of public affairs for the LDS Church, condemned Krakauer's example of religious "zealots" to draw conclusions about all Mormons and any propensity for violence. Otterson said that, after reading the book, "One could be forgiven for concluding that every Latter-day Saint, including your friendly Mormon neighbor, has a tendency to violence. And so Krakauer unwittingly puts himself in the same camp as those who believe every German is a Nazi, every Japanese a fanatic, and every Arab a terrorist."[9] Television adaptation Main article: Under the Banner of Heaven (miniseries) In July 2011, Warner Bros. purchased the film rights to the book, with Ron Howard directing and Dustin Lance Black writing the screenplay.[11][12] In June 2021, it was announced that the book was being redeveloped as a limited series for FX, with Black still attached as writer, David Mackenzie serving as director, and Andrew Garfield, Gil Birmingham and Daisy Edgar-Jones to star. The series debuted in April 2022 on FX on Hulu.[13] Related documentary In 2015, Amy Berg released her independent documentary, Prophet's Prey, about fundamentalist Mormons practicing polygamy, based on the case of Warren Jeffs, sentenced to life for polygamy and abuse of minors. Krakauer participated in this film and appears on camera, as he continued his own investigation of sects that practiced polygamy. Ron Howard and Brian Grazer, both working on the television adaptation of the book as producers, were also executive producers of the documentary.[12]

This is a video version of a section from my first podcast episode, as well as a kind of remake of the first video on this channel. You can check out the podcast here: https://open.spotify.com/show/0ih4sqt... Support Let's Talk Religion on Patreon: / letstalkreligion Or through a one-time donation: https://www.paypal.com/paypalme/letst... #religion #science #academia

Doctrine and Covenants section 132 is undoubtedly the most controversial of all of Joseph Smith’s revelations because it mentions the practice of plural marriage. Ironically, it is also one of the least discussed of all of Joseph’s official teachings for the same reason. The Gospel Topics Essays encourage a new transparency on this subject including inquiring into specific historical and doctrinal points found in the revelation. This illustration-rich fireside presentation focuses on its historical context and provenance. It will also address questions like what is the “new and everlasting covenant” (vv. 4–6), the “one” man “anointed and appointed” (vv. 7, 18, 19), the “law” (v. 34), the “holy anointing” and polyandry (vv. 41-42), the “offer” Emma is to “partake not of” (51), and “the law of Sarah” (v. 65). In addition, did Joseph “trespass” against Emma and why does the revelation threaten her to be “destroyed” (vv. 54, 56, 64)? Other inquiries include: Does D&C 132 command believers then or today to be polygamists? How does D&C 132 describe Joseph Smith’s zenith teaching, which is not polygamy? “A Life Lived in Crescendo”: Selected Punctuation Marks of Joseph Smith’s Final Years: A “Come, Follow Me” Virtual Fireside Series See https://interpreterfoundation.org/con... In support of the 2021 “Come Follow Me” curriculum, this virtual fireside series sponsored by the Interpreter Foundation, Book of Mormon Central, and FAIR seeks to enrich individual and family scripture study through a series of livestream YouTube presentations by faithful scholars on selected capstones of Joseph Smith’s final years. Firesides will be introduced by Richard E. Turley, Jr. Before his retirement, Rick served as assistant Church historian and later as managing director of the Church’s Public Affairs Department.